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The program is part of an ongoing collaboration between the \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.stanford.edu/\">Stanford Department of Genetics\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a>. 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They work in a lab, studying an obscure cancer of the salivary gland called \u003cem>salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\n\"Bingo!\" (Or not.)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers working on more common cancers may have dozens of cell lines to work with. But since salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma is relatively rare, Tetsu and Phuchareon had only six cell lines to experiment on, each of which could, theoretically, be traced back to a different patient.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One day, they noticed something that surprised them: Almost all the cell samples they were working with contained a virus. It was HPV virus, which you may have \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/hpv/vaccine.html\">heard of\u003c/a> because it can cause cervical cancer. To Tetsu, this looked like a breakthrough. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I thought maybe the HPV infection is the cause of this disease,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, they thought, maybe the HPV virus doesn’t only, potentially, cause cervical cancer, maybe it can cause salivary gland cancer too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were very excited, says Phuchareon. We thought “Bingo! We might have something!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then they took a closer look. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They sent the cell line samples in for DNA testing. When the results came in, they learned those cells they’d been working with had nothing to do with a salivary tumor. Four of them came from a cervical tumor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40932\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/HeLa_ATCC_crop.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/HeLa_ATCC_crop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"HeLa_ATCC_crop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-40932\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The famously vigorous HeLa cell is such a common contaminant of other cell lines that many laboratories refuse to work with it. (Image courtesy of ATCC) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These were HeLa cells, descendants of the infamously vigorous cervical cancer cell line that was the subject of the 2010 bestseller \u003cem>The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The news was no better for the other two cell lines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of them, says Tetsu, didn’t show any DNA fingerprint at all. “That means this cell line is not human,” he says. They suspect both cell lines had become contaminated with mice cells somewhere along the line.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A silver lining\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Six months of work, down the drain. But Phuchareon looks on the bright side. “It was bittersweet,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At least they found out before any major work had been done. They published \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0006040\">a paper\u003c/a> on their findings in a scientific journal, and have been able to warn other scientists who work on the same cancer. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We think it’s important to have scientists know that this is a problem,” Phuchareon says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem stems from the fact that, under a microscope, many cancer cells look the same. And since cell lines used in cancer research are anonymous, often shared informally between labs, the only way to definitively know where they came from is with DNA \u003ca href=\"http://www.atcc.org/Services/STRProfilingService/tabid/1794/Default.aspx\">analysis\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The analysis is inexpensive, about $50 a sample. It’s the same technique used in crime labs. But not every scientist does it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The steep price to science\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In one 2010 case, three cell lines being used to research esophageal cancer all turned out to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100114162243.htm\">come from other cancers\u003c/a>. Scientists had been working with these cells for years. They'd gotten major federal grants to do it, published more than 100 papers, even run clinical trials. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some cell banks have estimated that as many as a third of their cell lines have been misidentified. These cell lines have been sent to labs around the world, for basic research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often, the results still hold. Misidentification is not a death knell for all experiments. But in many cases, cell misidentification can undermine research and waste millions of dollars, says Roland Nardone, a professor emeritus of biology at Catholic University in Washington DC.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Money has been diverted away from useful experiments to meaningless experiments,” says Nardone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A legacy of whistleblowers\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly frustrating to him is the fact that scientists have known about this problem for more than half a century. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the earliest scientists to call attention to it was a Bay Area researcher named Walter Nelson-Rees. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was a cultured man, as well as a very good biologist,” recalls Nardone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees was co-director of the Oakland-based Cell Culture Laboratory of the School of Public Health, funded by the National Cancer Institute.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the early 1960s, he began running tests on commonly used cancer cell lines, to see how many were contaminated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gertrude Buehring -- today, a professor of virology at UC Berkeley’s School of Public Health -- worked down the hall from Nelson-Rees. She says every day, there was news of more contaminated cell lines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was just one after another,” she recalls.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cell samples had been contaminated by HeLa. But not all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Some were interspecies contaminated, so that a human cell line actually turned out to be a mouse cell line,” she says. [Some lines that were supposedly] derived from a female turned out to be derived from a male.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A career-ending discovery\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson Rees's discovery -- that hundreds of cell lines had been misidentified -- did not win him any friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Colleagues, says Buehring, “didn’t want to believe him. They fought him verbally at conferences. He was called a self-appointed vigilante and a lot of other names. One person even volunteered to send him a one way ticket to distant corners of the earth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nardone says, at least initially, Nelson-Rees relished the fight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was pugnacious,” says Nardone. “He recognized that he was going to be in a battlefield and he was ready for the fight.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, over time, the abuse took its toll.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He seemed visibly upset that people couldn’t appreciate the service that he was doing,” says Buehring. “They were more worried about their own reputation.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees’s findings may ultimately have cost him his career.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Without any explanation,” says Nardone, “his funds for support of his laboratory got smaller and smaller and he saw the handwriting on the wall and decided that was enough.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees became an art dealer. He \u003ca href=\"http://universityofcalifornia.edu/senate/inmemoriam/walteranthonynelson-rees.html\">died\u003c/a> in 2009. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The search for regulation\u003c/strong> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few years ago, Nardone decided to devote his retirement to \u003ca href=\"http://www.hpacultures.org.uk/services/celllineidentityverification/NardoneOpenletter.jsp\">the problem\u003c/a> that Nelson-Rees had publicized. He joined a workgroup, led by the Virginia-based research nonprofit ATCC, to come up with a standard, one that all researchers could work by.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The standards, which came out this year, outline the correct way to authenticate cell lines, so that researchers can compare results from lab to lab. ATCC also maintains \u003ca href=\"http://www.atcc.org/CulturesandProducts/CellBiology/MisidentifiedCellLines/tabid/683/Default.aspx\">a list\u003c/a> of misidentified cell lines on its website. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ATCC’s Liz Kerrigan says the challenge has been getting scientific institutions to adopt the standard.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Surprisingly to most members of the workgroup, there has been resistance to addressing or even acknowledging the problem,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few influential science journals now require that scientists authenticate cells before they’ll publish their results. But Nardone and Kerrigan believe that’s too late.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much better, says Nardone, would be to get the big funding institutions, particularly the National Institutes of Health, to demand that anyone who applies for funding for cell-culture research authenticate their cell lines initially.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, get the cells checked out before the money’s spent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The NIH steps back\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a statement, the NIH said doing this would be, quote, “impractical,” and that it trusts researchers to do the right thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kerrigan and Nardone believe that the costs of misidentified cell lines call for greater oversight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The consequences of widespread misidentification of cell lines is immeasurable, really,” says Kerrigan. “In addition to the waste of millions of dollars, there’s time, intellectual resources. And then people lose confidence in published work.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They’re hopeful stronger policies will soon emerge.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Under a microscope many cancer cells look the same. And since cell lines used in cancer research are anonymous, often shared informally between labs, the only way to definitively know where they came from is with DNA. But many scientists don't do this. ","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1450492573,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":62,"wordCount":1413},"headData":{"title":"The Great Cancer Cell Mix Up | KQED","description":"Under a microscope many cancer cells look the same. And since cell lines used in cancer research are anonymous, often shared informally between labs, the only way to definitively know where they came from is with DNA. But many scientists don't do this. ","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"The Great Cancer Cell Mix Up","datePublished":"2012-11-23T15:30:18.000Z","dateModified":"2015-12-19T02:36:13.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"40925 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?post_type=audio_reports&p=40925","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/23/the-great-cancer-cell-mix-up/","disqusTitle":"The Great Cancer Cell Mix Up","source":"Biology","sourceUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/biology/","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/11/20121126science.mp3","path":"/quest/40925/the-great-cancer-cell-mix-up","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>Originally published July 13, 2012\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine you're a scientist, trying to cure brain cancer. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing you’d probably want to be sure of is that the samples you’re working with actually came from a brain tumor, and not some other kind of cancer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This sounds like a simple problem to solve, but it’s been nagging scientists for years, causing the waste of precious research dollars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Osamu Tetsu and Janyaporn Phuchareon learned that lesson the hard way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tetsu and Phuchareon are scientists at the University of California San Francisco’s Department of Head and Neck Surgery. They work in a lab, studying an obscure cancer of the salivary gland called \u003cem>salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\n\"Bingo!\" (Or not.)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers working on more common cancers may have dozens of cell lines to work with. But since salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma is relatively rare, Tetsu and Phuchareon had only six cell lines to experiment on, each of which could, theoretically, be traced back to a different patient.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One day, they noticed something that surprised them: Almost all the cell samples they were working with contained a virus. It was HPV virus, which you may have \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/hpv/vaccine.html\">heard of\u003c/a> because it can cause cervical cancer. To Tetsu, this looked like a breakthrough. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I thought maybe the HPV infection is the cause of this disease,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, they thought, maybe the HPV virus doesn’t only, potentially, cause cervical cancer, maybe it can cause salivary gland cancer too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were very excited, says Phuchareon. We thought “Bingo! We might have something!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then they took a closer look. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They sent the cell line samples in for DNA testing. When the results came in, they learned those cells they’d been working with had nothing to do with a salivary tumor. Four of them came from a cervical tumor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40932\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/HeLa_ATCC_crop.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/HeLa_ATCC_crop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"HeLa_ATCC_crop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-40932\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The famously vigorous HeLa cell is such a common contaminant of other cell lines that many laboratories refuse to work with it. (Image courtesy of ATCC) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These were HeLa cells, descendants of the infamously vigorous cervical cancer cell line that was the subject of the 2010 bestseller \u003cem>The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The news was no better for the other two cell lines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of them, says Tetsu, didn’t show any DNA fingerprint at all. “That means this cell line is not human,” he says. They suspect both cell lines had become contaminated with mice cells somewhere along the line.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A silver lining\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Six months of work, down the drain. But Phuchareon looks on the bright side. “It was bittersweet,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At least they found out before any major work had been done. They published \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0006040\">a paper\u003c/a> on their findings in a scientific journal, and have been able to warn other scientists who work on the same cancer. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We think it’s important to have scientists know that this is a problem,” Phuchareon says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem stems from the fact that, under a microscope, many cancer cells look the same. And since cell lines used in cancer research are anonymous, often shared informally between labs, the only way to definitively know where they came from is with DNA \u003ca href=\"http://www.atcc.org/Services/STRProfilingService/tabid/1794/Default.aspx\">analysis\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The analysis is inexpensive, about $50 a sample. It’s the same technique used in crime labs. But not every scientist does it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The steep price to science\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In one 2010 case, three cell lines being used to research esophageal cancer all turned out to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100114162243.htm\">come from other cancers\u003c/a>. Scientists had been working with these cells for years. They'd gotten major federal grants to do it, published more than 100 papers, even run clinical trials. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some cell banks have estimated that as many as a third of their cell lines have been misidentified. These cell lines have been sent to labs around the world, for basic research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Often, the results still hold. Misidentification is not a death knell for all experiments. But in many cases, cell misidentification can undermine research and waste millions of dollars, says Roland Nardone, a professor emeritus of biology at Catholic University in Washington DC.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Money has been diverted away from useful experiments to meaningless experiments,” says Nardone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A legacy of whistleblowers\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Particularly frustrating to him is the fact that scientists have known about this problem for more than half a century. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the earliest scientists to call attention to it was a Bay Area researcher named Walter Nelson-Rees. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was a cultured man, as well as a very good biologist,” recalls Nardone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees was co-director of the Oakland-based Cell Culture Laboratory of the School of Public Health, funded by the National Cancer Institute.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the early 1960s, he began running tests on commonly used cancer cell lines, to see how many were contaminated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gertrude Buehring -- today, a professor of virology at UC Berkeley’s School of Public Health -- worked down the hall from Nelson-Rees. She says every day, there was news of more contaminated cell lines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was just one after another,” she recalls.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cell samples had been contaminated by HeLa. But not all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Some were interspecies contaminated, so that a human cell line actually turned out to be a mouse cell line,” she says. [Some lines that were supposedly] derived from a female turned out to be derived from a male.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A career-ending discovery\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson Rees's discovery -- that hundreds of cell lines had been misidentified -- did not win him any friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Colleagues, says Buehring, “didn’t want to believe him. They fought him verbally at conferences. He was called a self-appointed vigilante and a lot of other names. One person even volunteered to send him a one way ticket to distant corners of the earth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nardone says, at least initially, Nelson-Rees relished the fight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was pugnacious,” says Nardone. “He recognized that he was going to be in a battlefield and he was ready for the fight.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, over time, the abuse took its toll.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He seemed visibly upset that people couldn’t appreciate the service that he was doing,” says Buehring. “They were more worried about their own reputation.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees’s findings may ultimately have cost him his career.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Without any explanation,” says Nardone, “his funds for support of his laboratory got smaller and smaller and he saw the handwriting on the wall and decided that was enough.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nelson-Rees became an art dealer. He \u003ca href=\"http://universityofcalifornia.edu/senate/inmemoriam/walteranthonynelson-rees.html\">died\u003c/a> in 2009. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The search for regulation\u003c/strong> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few years ago, Nardone decided to devote his retirement to \u003ca href=\"http://www.hpacultures.org.uk/services/celllineidentityverification/NardoneOpenletter.jsp\">the problem\u003c/a> that Nelson-Rees had publicized. He joined a workgroup, led by the Virginia-based research nonprofit ATCC, to come up with a standard, one that all researchers could work by.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The standards, which came out this year, outline the correct way to authenticate cell lines, so that researchers can compare results from lab to lab. ATCC also maintains \u003ca href=\"http://www.atcc.org/CulturesandProducts/CellBiology/MisidentifiedCellLines/tabid/683/Default.aspx\">a list\u003c/a> of misidentified cell lines on its website. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ATCC’s Liz Kerrigan says the challenge has been getting scientific institutions to adopt the standard.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Surprisingly to most members of the workgroup, there has been resistance to addressing or even acknowledging the problem,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few influential science journals now require that scientists authenticate cells before they’ll publish their results. But Nardone and Kerrigan believe that’s too late.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much better, says Nardone, would be to get the big funding institutions, particularly the National Institutes of Health, to demand that anyone who applies for funding for cell-culture research authenticate their cell lines initially.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, get the cells checked out before the money’s spent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The NIH steps back\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a statement, the NIH said doing this would be, quote, “impractical,” and that it trusts researchers to do the right thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kerrigan and Nardone believe that the costs of misidentified cell lines call for greater oversight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The consequences of widespread misidentification of cell lines is immeasurable, really,” says Kerrigan. “In addition to the waste of millions of dollars, there’s time, intellectual resources. And then people lose confidence in published work.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"floatright"},"numeric":["floatright"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They’re hopeful stronger policies will soon emerge.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/40925/the-great-cancer-cell-mix-up","authors":["210"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_12","quest_17"],"tags":["quest_11288","quest_252","quest_11285","quest_1340","quest_11194","quest_11286","quest_11291","quest_11290","quest_13203","quest_11289","quest_3784","quest_11287"],"featImg":"quest_40932","label":"source_quest_40925"},"quest_19224":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_19224","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"19224","score":null,"sort":[1304959203000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"osama%e2%80%99s-sister%e2%80%99s-brother","title":"Osama’s Sister’s Brother","publishDate":1304959203,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/Osama1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>DNA tests were able to confirm with a 99.9% certainty that\u003cbr>Osama bin Laden has been killed.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the key ways the U.S. government confirmed that they had killed Osama bin Laden was using genetic tests. What they did was take DNA from the corpse and compare it to known relatives of Osama bin Laden (or at the very least to his sister). From this they concluded that there was a 99.9% chance that the dead man was Osama bin Laden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unless they had a sample of Osama’s DNA, these kinds of tests can’t necessarily prove beyond a shadow of a doubt that the man killed was Osama. What it can do, for example, is say that the man killed was Osama’s sister’s brother. If all the other brothers are accounted for and there aren’t any unknown brothers out there, then this is him.\u003cbr>\n\u003c!--more-->\u003cbr>\nThis shows why it is so important to have lots of relatives to test. For example, if they also tested one or more of his children, then they could conclude that the man killed was the father of Osama’s children and the brother of Osama’s sister. Unless Osama had an unknown brother who fathered his children, then the dead man in Pakistan would certainly be Osama bin Laden. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course they didn’t rely just on the DNA (although these results are very strong). They also used fancy biometric recognition software and eyewitness testimony to confirm that the dead man is Osama bin Laden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Testing DNA\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how’d they do the actual DNA testing? They wouldn’t have had time to sequence all of his DNA but that’s not a big deal. No one would do that to identify a suspect anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most likely, they did a more extensive version of a run-of-the-mill paternity test. When given a high priority, these tests can easily be done in less than 24 hours.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In paternity-like tests, scientists compare the DNA of the related people at multiple spots in the genome. They look at parts of our DNA that tend to be different between unrelated people. If people share a lot of them in common in the right ways, then they are related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These spots go by lots of different names--microsatellites, simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats (STRs), variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)--but we’ll call them STRs here. STRs are bits of DNA where the sequence is repeated over and over, back to back. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, DNA is made up of four chemical \"letters\" (or nucleotides) that are usually abbreviated as A, G, T, and C. So an STR is a string of letters that is repeated. What makes them useful here is that different people can have different numbers of these repeats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine the set of DNA letters AGTC. One person might have 10 of these in a row. And another might have 11 or 9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, lots of people will have 10 of these repeats. That is why scientists can't look at just one STR. Here in the U.S., forensic scientists have chosen 13 of them to tell people apart. Since the government only had a few relatives to compare Osama’s DNA to, they almost certainly looked at many more spots. The more spots you look at, the more solid is the evidence that two people are related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To get enough DNA to see, scientists need to use something called the polymerase chain reaction or PCR. This technique is a really fast way to make lots of copies of a bit of someone’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In PCR, scientists use a special protein called a \"polymerase.\" Its job is to copy DNA. Scientists tell the protein what DNA to copy by giving it starting and ending points, called \"primers.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Primers are small segments of DNA that match the part of the DNA a scientist is interested in. The protein then copies everything between the two primers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here the government would have premade all of the primers on each side of the STRs they wanted to test. They would have also worked out all of the reaction conditions so they could get the results in just a few hours. A single PCR reaction would look something like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/PCR11.gif\" align=\"center\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If someone has a different number of repeats, then they'll have a different size of copied DNA. Imagine our example above. If I have 10 copies of AGTC and you have 11, then my copied piece of DNA will be 4 letters shorter. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Osama’s sister’s DNA and the DNA from the man who died in the Pakistani compound must have shared lots of these STRs. So many in fact, that there was a 99.9% chance that they were brother and sister.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Scientists could definitely get DNA results from Osama bin Laden in less than 24 hours. And they could conclude with high certainty that the man killed was Osama bin Laden.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1309991431,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":22,"wordCount":829},"headData":{"title":"Osama’s Sister’s Brother | KQED","description":"Scientists could definitely get DNA results from Osama bin Laden in less than 24 hours. And they could conclude with high certainty that the man killed was Osama bin Laden.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Osama’s Sister’s Brother","datePublished":"2011-05-09T16:40:03.000Z","dateModified":"2011-07-06T22:30:31.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"19224 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2011/05/09/osama%e2%80%99s-sister%e2%80%99s-brother/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/09/osama%e2%80%99s-sister%e2%80%99s-brother/","disqusTitle":"Osama’s Sister’s Brother","path":"/quest/19224/osama%e2%80%99s-sister%e2%80%99s-brother","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/Osama1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>DNA tests were able to confirm with a 99.9% certainty that\u003cbr>Osama bin Laden has been killed.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the key ways the U.S. government confirmed that they had killed Osama bin Laden was using genetic tests. What they did was take DNA from the corpse and compare it to known relatives of Osama bin Laden (or at the very least to his sister). From this they concluded that there was a 99.9% chance that the dead man was Osama bin Laden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unless they had a sample of Osama’s DNA, these kinds of tests can’t necessarily prove beyond a shadow of a doubt that the man killed was Osama. What it can do, for example, is say that the man killed was Osama’s sister’s brother. If all the other brothers are accounted for and there aren’t any unknown brothers out there, then this is him.\u003cbr>\n\u003c!--more-->\u003cbr>\nThis shows why it is so important to have lots of relatives to test. For example, if they also tested one or more of his children, then they could conclude that the man killed was the father of Osama’s children and the brother of Osama’s sister. Unless Osama had an unknown brother who fathered his children, then the dead man in Pakistan would certainly be Osama bin Laden. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course they didn’t rely just on the DNA (although these results are very strong). They also used fancy biometric recognition software and eyewitness testimony to confirm that the dead man is Osama bin Laden.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Testing DNA\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how’d they do the actual DNA testing? They wouldn’t have had time to sequence all of his DNA but that’s not a big deal. No one would do that to identify a suspect anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most likely, they did a more extensive version of a run-of-the-mill paternity test. When given a high priority, these tests can easily be done in less than 24 hours.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In paternity-like tests, scientists compare the DNA of the related people at multiple spots in the genome. They look at parts of our DNA that tend to be different between unrelated people. If people share a lot of them in common in the right ways, then they are related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These spots go by lots of different names--microsatellites, simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats (STRs), variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)--but we’ll call them STRs here. STRs are bits of DNA where the sequence is repeated over and over, back to back. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, DNA is made up of four chemical \"letters\" (or nucleotides) that are usually abbreviated as A, G, T, and C. So an STR is a string of letters that is repeated. What makes them useful here is that different people can have different numbers of these repeats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine the set of DNA letters AGTC. One person might have 10 of these in a row. And another might have 11 or 9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, lots of people will have 10 of these repeats. That is why scientists can't look at just one STR. Here in the U.S., forensic scientists have chosen 13 of them to tell people apart. Since the government only had a few relatives to compare Osama’s DNA to, they almost certainly looked at many more spots. The more spots you look at, the more solid is the evidence that two people are related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To get enough DNA to see, scientists need to use something called the polymerase chain reaction or PCR. This technique is a really fast way to make lots of copies of a bit of someone’s DNA. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In PCR, scientists use a special protein called a \"polymerase.\" Its job is to copy DNA. Scientists tell the protein what DNA to copy by giving it starting and ending points, called \"primers.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Primers are small segments of DNA that match the part of the DNA a scientist is interested in. The protein then copies everything between the two primers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here the government would have premade all of the primers on each side of the STRs they wanted to test. They would have also worked out all of the reaction conditions so they could get the results in just a few hours. A single PCR reaction would look something like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/PCR11.gif\" align=\"center\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If someone has a different number of repeats, then they'll have a different size of copied DNA. Imagine our example above. If I have 10 copies of AGTC and you have 11, then my copied piece of DNA will be 4 letters shorter. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Osama’s sister’s DNA and the DNA from the man who died in the Pakistani compound must have shared lots of these STRs. So many in fact, that there was a 99.9% chance that they were brother and sister.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/19224/osama%e2%80%99s-sister%e2%80%99s-brother","authors":["6177"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_3523","quest_3590","quest_1197","quest_3616","quest_3658","quest_3690","quest_3695","quest_3696","quest_3709","quest_3784"],"featImg":"quest_19250","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? 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You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.","airtime":"MON-FRI 3am-9am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/morning-edition"},"onourwatch":{"id":"onourwatch","title":"On Our Watch","tagline":"Police secrets, unsealed","info":"For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. 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