Geneticists Solve Van Gogh's Mutant Sunflowers After 125 Years
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The trouble is, as any supermarket shopper can tell you, tomatoes that look great sometimes taste terrible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not hard to see how much some tomatoes have changed. Just take the trucks on California highways during the summer, each pulling a double trailer stacked high with tomatoes. There’s a reason the tomatoes at the bottom of the pile aren’t squished into a tomato-y mess. That's thanks to the \u003ca href=\"http://daviswiki.org/square_tomato\">square tomato\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The square tomato is kind of a misnomer,” says Roger Chetelat, director of the Tomato Genetics Resource Center at the University of California-Davis. We’re in a greenhouse on campus where he’s holding a few square tomatoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can see they’re not square but they are blocky,” he says. The tomatoes are sort of flat on the side and are firm to the touch even though they’re ripe, sort of like a baseball. “I think I’d prefer to have a tomato like that thrown at me than a baseball, but yeah, they’re pretty tough,” Chetelat says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fifty years ago, farmers were looking for tougher tomatoes that could withstand new mechanical picking machines. So, plant breeders at UC Davis created a tomato with thick skin and a firm, meaty inside. California’s tomato production boomed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Unintended Genetic Consequences\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the era of modern plant breeding came with some unintended effects, as UC Davis researcher Ann Powell discovered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She demonstrates with a genetic taste test, of sorts. “We can try one of these,” she says, cutting up a standard grocery store tomato. “Tastes tomato-y.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_42812\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/GreenShoulders.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-42812\" title=\"SONY DSC\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/GreenShoulders.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"197\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Young tomatoes with green shoulders on the left and no shoulders on the right.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The other one we’re sampling has what Powell calls “green shoulders.” That means, as it grew, the tomato was dark green on top around the stem – something that’s controlled by a specific gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re sweeter,” Powell says, tasting it. “Whether it’s all due to that particular gene, I can’t tell you. But, I don’t know, you can taste the difference.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If green shoulders don’t sound familiar, that’s because most commercial tomatoes don’t have them anymore. Seventy years ago, breeders selected for uniformly light green tomatoes with no shoulders, which stood out better against the plant’s dark leaves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re a lot easier to see so a farmer could judge his yield. They could see how productive the plants were a lot easier,” says Powell. Their uniform color was also more attractive to consumers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out, those green shoulders have a key job. “We found that it influences the amount of sugar in the ripe fruit,” she says. The dark green parts have more chloroplasts, which turn sunlight into sugars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It made about a 20 percent difference in the amount of sugars. I think of it a little bit like how you eat berries. Most of us, including me, sprinkle a little bit of sugar on top to sort of enhance the flavor,” says Powell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_42819\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Powell.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-42819\" title=\"Powell\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Powell.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ann Powell looks at tomatoes in a UC Davis greenhouse.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most heirloom tomatoes still have green shoulders, but Powell says now that they know about this gene, plant breeders could put it back in commercial varieties. And since the tomato genome was sequenced earlier this year, there are still other flavor genes to study.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focusing on Taste and Nutrition\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve modified and changed our food radically,” says Alyson Mitchell, professor in UC Davis’s Food Science and Technology Department.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve bred these seeds and plants to have all of these other characteristics: uniform shape, size, color, good disease resistance, high yield,” she says. That’s had major benefits: produce is widely available and more affordable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the other hand, “we’ve absolutely not paid attention to flavor and nutrition. You know, we’re telling children, eat more fruits and vegetables at a time that fruits and vegetables have never tasted worse,” Mitchell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are just starting to understand the molecular compounds that control taste and nutrition. “What we do know is that not all tomatoes are the same. Different cultivars have different levels of nutrients in them,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Growing them organically can also change the levels of nutrients. In a ten-year controlled study of tomatoes, organic tomatoes showed higher levels of antioxidants and molecules that make up flavor and color. But researchers still aren’t sure which of these compounds are the most important for our health. Take flavonoids, which have gotten a lot of hype as antioxidants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There are about sixteen hundred described flavonoids to date and we don’t even really at this point understand what that complement is, let alone what all of those different compounds do to benefit our health,” Mitchell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even if there is one nutrient that stands out, it’s not always easy to enhance it. Take the case of “super broccoli.” “So they made this broccoli and the idea was to market it as a super broccoli because it had very high levels of this antioxidant, quercetin. Well quercetin is really bitter and they sat a bunch of people down to eat and nobody could eat it, it was so awful,” says Mitchell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mitchell says it’s probably the combination of nutrients that gives produce its punch, which they’re working to understand better. Until then, she says, there is one way to make sure you’re getting those benefits: follow your mom’s advice and eat more fruits and vegetables.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Many tomatoes have been bred to travel well and look appealing, but now researchers are focusing on making them more nutritious and better tasting.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1450496230,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":26,"wordCount":1010},"headData":{"title":"Building a Better, Tastier Tomato | KQED","description":"Many tomatoes have been bred to travel well and look appealing, but now researchers are focusing on making them more nutritious and better tasting.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"42806 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?post_type=audio_reports&p=42806","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/08/17/building-a-better-tastier-tomato/","disqusTitle":"Building a Better, Tastier Tomato","source":"Food","sourceUrl":"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/category/food/","audioUrl":"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/08/2012-08-20-quest.mp3","path":"/quest/42806/building-a-better-tastier-tomato","audioDuration":null,"audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Decades ago, researchers figured out how to create the picture-perfect tomato that travels well and is available year-round. The trouble is, as any supermarket shopper can tell you, tomatoes that look great sometimes taste terrible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not hard to see how much some tomatoes have changed. Just take the trucks on California highways during the summer, each pulling a double trailer stacked high with tomatoes. There’s a reason the tomatoes at the bottom of the pile aren’t squished into a tomato-y mess. That's thanks to the \u003ca href=\"http://daviswiki.org/square_tomato\">square tomato\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The square tomato is kind of a misnomer,” says Roger Chetelat, director of the Tomato Genetics Resource Center at the University of California-Davis. We’re in a greenhouse on campus where he’s holding a few square tomatoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can see they’re not square but they are blocky,” he says. The tomatoes are sort of flat on the side and are firm to the touch even though they’re ripe, sort of like a baseball. “I think I’d prefer to have a tomato like that thrown at me than a baseball, but yeah, they’re pretty tough,” Chetelat says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fifty years ago, farmers were looking for tougher tomatoes that could withstand new mechanical picking machines. So, plant breeders at UC Davis created a tomato with thick skin and a firm, meaty inside. California’s tomato production boomed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Unintended Genetic Consequences\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the era of modern plant breeding came with some unintended effects, as UC Davis researcher Ann Powell discovered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She demonstrates with a genetic taste test, of sorts. “We can try one of these,” she says, cutting up a standard grocery store tomato. “Tastes tomato-y.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_42812\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/GreenShoulders.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-42812\" title=\"SONY DSC\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/GreenShoulders.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"197\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Young tomatoes with green shoulders on the left and no shoulders on the right.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The other one we’re sampling has what Powell calls “green shoulders.” That means, as it grew, the tomato was dark green on top around the stem – something that’s controlled by a specific gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re sweeter,” Powell says, tasting it. “Whether it’s all due to that particular gene, I can’t tell you. But, I don’t know, you can taste the difference.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If green shoulders don’t sound familiar, that’s because most commercial tomatoes don’t have them anymore. Seventy years ago, breeders selected for uniformly light green tomatoes with no shoulders, which stood out better against the plant’s dark leaves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re a lot easier to see so a farmer could judge his yield. They could see how productive the plants were a lot easier,” says Powell. Their uniform color was also more attractive to consumers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out, those green shoulders have a key job. “We found that it influences the amount of sugar in the ripe fruit,” she says. The dark green parts have more chloroplasts, which turn sunlight into sugars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It made about a 20 percent difference in the amount of sugars. I think of it a little bit like how you eat berries. Most of us, including me, sprinkle a little bit of sugar on top to sort of enhance the flavor,” says Powell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_42819\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Powell.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-42819\" title=\"Powell\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/Powell.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ann Powell looks at tomatoes in a UC Davis greenhouse.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most heirloom tomatoes still have green shoulders, but Powell says now that they know about this gene, plant breeders could put it back in commercial varieties. And since the tomato genome was sequenced earlier this year, there are still other flavor genes to study.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focusing on Taste and Nutrition\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve modified and changed our food radically,” says Alyson Mitchell, professor in UC Davis’s Food Science and Technology Department.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve bred these seeds and plants to have all of these other characteristics: uniform shape, size, color, good disease resistance, high yield,” she says. That’s had major benefits: produce is widely available and more affordable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the other hand, “we’ve absolutely not paid attention to flavor and nutrition. You know, we’re telling children, eat more fruits and vegetables at a time that fruits and vegetables have never tasted worse,” Mitchell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are just starting to understand the molecular compounds that control taste and nutrition. “What we do know is that not all tomatoes are the same. Different cultivars have different levels of nutrients in them,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Growing them organically can also change the levels of nutrients. In a ten-year controlled study of tomatoes, organic tomatoes showed higher levels of antioxidants and molecules that make up flavor and color. But researchers still aren’t sure which of these compounds are the most important for our health. Take flavonoids, which have gotten a lot of hype as antioxidants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There are about sixteen hundred described flavonoids to date and we don’t even really at this point understand what that complement is, let alone what all of those different compounds do to benefit our health,” Mitchell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even if there is one nutrient that stands out, it’s not always easy to enhance it. Take the case of “super broccoli.” “So they made this broccoli and the idea was to market it as a super broccoli because it had very high levels of this antioxidant, quercetin. Well quercetin is really bitter and they sat a bunch of people down to eat and nobody could eat it, it was so awful,” says Mitchell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mitchell says it’s probably the combination of nutrients that gives produce its punch, which they’re working to understand better. Until then, she says, there is one way to make sure you’re getting those benefits: follow your mom’s advice and eat more fruits and vegetables.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/42806/building-a-better-tastier-tomato","authors":["239"],"categories":["quest_4","quest_5","quest_9","quest_3229","quest_17"],"tags":["quest_252","quest_733","quest_1122","quest_1197","quest_10106","quest_13203","quest_2088","quest_10926","quest_2220","quest_3716","quest_13","quest_13364","quest_11374","quest_3022"],"featImg":"quest_42808","label":"source_quest_42806"},"quest_34211":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_34211","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"34211","score":null,"sort":[1333464024000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years","title":"Geneticists Solve Van Gogh's Mutant Sunflowers After 125 Years","publishDate":1333464024,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34235\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/vincent_van_gogh_-_zonnebloemen_-_google_art_project/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34235\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\" alt=\"Vincent van Gogh - Sunflowers - 1889\" title=\"Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34235\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers (1889)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most admirers of van Gogh's iconic \"Sunflower\" paintings gaze upon the golden inflorescences without any awareness of the scientific conundrum they pose. But researchers from the University of Georgia have finally cracked the case with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1002628\" title=\"Chapman et al. PLoS Genetics\">paper published in PLoS Genetics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34214\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 169px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/californiabuttercup/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34214\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Californiabuttercup-169x169.jpg\" alt=\"California buttercup\" title=\"Californiabuttercup\" width=\"169\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-34214\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Buttercup taken at Tilden Park in Berkeley, California by Calibas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34219\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/orchid/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34219\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Orchid-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Orchid\" title=\"Orchid\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-34219\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Orchid taken by Alex Tievsky SaveThePoint\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The puzzle begins with the fact that all flowers are either \u003cem>radially\u003c/em> or \u003cem>bilaterally\u003c/em> symmetrical. A buttercup is an example of radial symmetry; it looks the same no matter how you rotate it. An orchid, on the other hand, has bilateral symmetry, like a human face--the left and right sides look the same, but you can tell whether it's right side up or upside down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's the sneaky thing: a lot of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(botany)\" title=\"flower head - wikipedia\">seemingly radially symmetrical flowers\u003c/a> are actually \u003cem>clusters\u003c/em> of tiny bilaterally symmetrical flowers, or \u003cem>florets\u003c/em>. In fact, this is true of one of the biggest flower families, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae\" title=\"Wikipedia - Asteraceae\">Asteraceae\u003c/a>, which includes such familiar friends as dandelions, daisies and, yes, sunflowers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the sunflower makes things extra complicated by building its cluster out of \u003cem>two\u003c/em> kinds of florets: bilaterally symmetrical \u003cem>ray florets\u003c/em>, and radially symmetrical \u003cem>disk florets\u003c/em>. This may sound confusing, but it's obvious as soon as you look for it: the classic sunflower is a ring of petals (ray florets) surrounding a big disk that will become filled with seeds (fertilized disk florets). The ray florets are infertile--they're just there to help attract pollinators.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/800px-helianthus_annuus1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34228\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/800px-Helianthus_annuus1-540x360.jpg\" alt=\"Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)\" title=\"800px-Helianthus_annuus1\" width=\"540\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-34228\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now at last we can consider van Gogh, and his double-flowered sunflowers. They're \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men\" title=\"Wikipedia - X-Men\">mutants\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003cem>double-flowered mutant\u003c/em> has no true disk florets, only concentric rings of ray florets--a profusion of petals. Consequently, the plant loses a lot of its fertility. You might wonder, can the opposite occur? Indeed, in \u003cem>tubular-rayed mutants\u003c/em> ray florets are replaced with radialized, fertile disk florets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mark Chapman and his colleagues have just discovered that one particular gene, called \u003cem>HaCYC2c\u003c/em>, causes both mutations. If \u003cem>HaCYC2c\u003c/em> is over-expressed, it creates double-flowered van Goghs. If the gene's function is lost, however, you get tubular-rayed flowers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I particularly love this study because at least the first part of their methods is totally accessible to anyone who's studied Mendelian crosses in high school biology. See:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/sunflower_fig2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34212\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/sunflower_Fig2-478x360.png\" alt=\"Van Gogh's Sunflowers - Figure 2\" title=\"sunflower_Fig2\" width=\"478\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-34212\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, maybe it's a bit tricky. If you want to puzzle it out but you're rusty on Mendel, here's a \u003ca href=\"http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/transgenetics/monohybrid1.html\" title=\"Mendelian Genetics Primer\">primer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, you don't need to understand Mendelian crosses--or the super-sophisticated genetic mapping that Chapman et al. use later--to appreciate van Gogh's art. Nor do you need to be an Impressionist fan to appreciate sunflower genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But I think we can \u003cem>all\u003c/em> appreciate that it's not often a famous painting is included in Figure 1 of a scientific paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34213\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/sunflower_fig1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34213\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/sunflower_Fig1-640x266.png\" alt=\"Van Gogh's Sunflowers - Figure 1\" title=\"sunflower_Fig1\" width=\"640\" height=\"266\" class=\"size-large wp-image-34213\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Entire inflorescences (A, C, E) and individual florets (B, D, F) from wildtype (A, B), double-flowered (C, D) and tubular (E, F) sunflower individuals. Florets are arranged left to right from the inner florets to the outer florets. (G) “Sunflowers (Still Life: Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers)” by Vincent van Gogh (1888) with double-flowered heads pointed out with arrows. Panel G was obtained from Steve Dorrington on flickr (available at http://flic.kr/p/8SsPYb) and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0) License.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Most admirers of Vincent van Gogh's iconic \"Sunflower\" paintings gaze upon the golden inflorescences without any awareness of the scientific conundrum they pose. But researchers from the University of Georgia have finally cracked the case with a paper published in PLoS Genetics.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1334698748,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":577},"headData":{"title":"Geneticists Solve Van Gogh's Mutant Sunflowers After 125 Years | KQED","description":"Most admirers of Vincent van Gogh's iconic "Sunflower" paintings gaze upon the golden inflorescences without any awareness of the scientific conundrum they pose. But researchers from the University of Georgia have finally cracked the case with a paper published in PLoS Genetics.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"34211 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=34211","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/","disqusTitle":"Geneticists Solve Van Gogh's Mutant Sunflowers After 125 Years","path":"/quest/34211/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34235\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/vincent_van_gogh_-_zonnebloemen_-_google_art_project/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34235\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\" alt=\"Vincent van Gogh - Sunflowers - 1889\" title=\"Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34235\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers (1889)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most admirers of van Gogh's iconic \"Sunflower\" paintings gaze upon the golden inflorescences without any awareness of the scientific conundrum they pose. But researchers from the University of Georgia have finally cracked the case with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1002628\" title=\"Chapman et al. PLoS Genetics\">paper published in PLoS Genetics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34214\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 169px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/californiabuttercup/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34214\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Californiabuttercup-169x169.jpg\" alt=\"California buttercup\" title=\"Californiabuttercup\" width=\"169\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-34214\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Buttercup taken at Tilden Park in Berkeley, California by Calibas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34219\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/orchid/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34219\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/Orchid-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Orchid\" title=\"Orchid\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-34219\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Orchid taken by Alex Tievsky SaveThePoint\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The puzzle begins with the fact that all flowers are either \u003cem>radially\u003c/em> or \u003cem>bilaterally\u003c/em> symmetrical. A buttercup is an example of radial symmetry; it looks the same no matter how you rotate it. An orchid, on the other hand, has bilateral symmetry, like a human face--the left and right sides look the same, but you can tell whether it's right side up or upside down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's the sneaky thing: a lot of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(botany)\" title=\"flower head - wikipedia\">seemingly radially symmetrical flowers\u003c/a> are actually \u003cem>clusters\u003c/em> of tiny bilaterally symmetrical flowers, or \u003cem>florets\u003c/em>. In fact, this is true of one of the biggest flower families, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae\" title=\"Wikipedia - Asteraceae\">Asteraceae\u003c/a>, which includes such familiar friends as dandelions, daisies and, yes, sunflowers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the sunflower makes things extra complicated by building its cluster out of \u003cem>two\u003c/em> kinds of florets: bilaterally symmetrical \u003cem>ray florets\u003c/em>, and radially symmetrical \u003cem>disk florets\u003c/em>. This may sound confusing, but it's obvious as soon as you look for it: the classic sunflower is a ring of petals (ray florets) surrounding a big disk that will become filled with seeds (fertilized disk florets). The ray florets are infertile--they're just there to help attract pollinators.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/800px-helianthus_annuus1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34228\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/800px-Helianthus_annuus1-540x360.jpg\" alt=\"Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)\" title=\"800px-Helianthus_annuus1\" width=\"540\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-34228\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now at last we can consider van Gogh, and his double-flowered sunflowers. They're \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men\" title=\"Wikipedia - X-Men\">mutants\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003cem>double-flowered mutant\u003c/em> has no true disk florets, only concentric rings of ray florets--a profusion of petals. Consequently, the plant loses a lot of its fertility. You might wonder, can the opposite occur? Indeed, in \u003cem>tubular-rayed mutants\u003c/em> ray florets are replaced with radialized, fertile disk florets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mark Chapman and his colleagues have just discovered that one particular gene, called \u003cem>HaCYC2c\u003c/em>, causes both mutations. If \u003cem>HaCYC2c\u003c/em> is over-expressed, it creates double-flowered van Goghs. If the gene's function is lost, however, you get tubular-rayed flowers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I particularly love this study because at least the first part of their methods is totally accessible to anyone who's studied Mendelian crosses in high school biology. See:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/sunflower_fig2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34212\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/sunflower_Fig2-478x360.png\" alt=\"Van Gogh's Sunflowers - Figure 2\" title=\"sunflower_Fig2\" width=\"478\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-34212\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, maybe it's a bit tricky. If you want to puzzle it out but you're rusty on Mendel, here's a \u003ca href=\"http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/transgenetics/monohybrid1.html\" title=\"Mendelian Genetics Primer\">primer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, you don't need to understand Mendelian crosses--or the super-sophisticated genetic mapping that Chapman et al. use later--to appreciate van Gogh's art. Nor do you need to be an Impressionist fan to appreciate sunflower genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But I think we can \u003cem>all\u003c/em> appreciate that it's not often a famous painting is included in Figure 1 of a scientific paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34213\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/04/03/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years/sunflower_fig1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34213\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/04/sunflower_Fig1-640x266.png\" alt=\"Van Gogh's Sunflowers - Figure 1\" title=\"sunflower_Fig1\" width=\"640\" height=\"266\" class=\"size-large wp-image-34213\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Entire inflorescences (A, C, E) and individual florets (B, D, F) from wildtype (A, B), double-flowered (C, D) and tubular (E, F) sunflower individuals. Florets are arranged left to right from the inner florets to the outer florets. (G) “Sunflowers (Still Life: Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers)” by Vincent van Gogh (1888) with double-flowered heads pointed out with arrows. Panel G was obtained from Steve Dorrington on flickr (available at http://flic.kr/p/8SsPYb) and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0) License.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/34211/geneticists-solve-van-goghs-mutant-sunflowers-after-125-years","authors":["6324"],"categories":["quest_4"],"tags":["quest_216","quest_3309","quest_1197","quest_3351","quest_10925","quest_1900","quest_3307","quest_2112","quest_10926","quest_2349","quest_13202","quest_10924","quest_10927","quest_10923"],"featImg":"quest_34235","label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. 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And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/powerpress/1440_0017_BayCurious_iTunesTile_01.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/2021/10/BBC_1400.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CodeSwitchLifeKit_StationGraphics_300x300EmailGraphic.png","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2019/07/commonwealthclub.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. 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We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/mindshift2021-tile-3000x3000-1-scaled-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. 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