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https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds \u003cem>another \u003c/em>ocean for us to worry about, this time on Saturn's moon, Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funny thing about oceans in the solar system, other than Earth's deep waters, they seem to be popping up where we least expect them: in the outer solar system. Should we change our preconceptions and start expecting them there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rewind to my childhood, when my fascination with space, and in particular the planets and moons of the solar system, was only tantalized by the distant, fuzzy images collected by Earth-based telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking through my small telescope, Jupiter's four Galilean moons were sparks of light, or at best, fuzzy disks showing blotches of light and dark and perhaps a little color taken \"close up\" by the Pioneer spacecraft. This left a lot to the imagination--which was actually part of the fascination. Who might have suspected, looking at the \u003ca title=\"Europa imaged by Pioneer 10\" href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg/200px-Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">blurry whitish fuzz-patch of Europa\u003c/a>, as seen by Pioneer, that there was an ocean hidden under the icy crust tens of miles deep and containing more liquid water than all of Earth's?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Galileo spacecraft eventually obtained images that alluded to the existence of \u003ca title=\"Europa's Ocean\" href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/12/europas-ocean-a-future-nasa-2020-mission-in-search-for-life.html\" target=\"_blank\">Europa's oceans\u003c/a>, scientists explained how heat generated through tidal flexing by Jupiter was the mechanism that kept the waters fluid. Voyager had already revealed that the \u003ca title=\"Io's volcanic activity\" href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/iovolcano.htm\" target=\"_blank\">moon Io\u003c/a> experienced heating that powered its many active volcanoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And now there is evidence for another big ocean out there, on Saturn's moon Titan. Titan? Did you hear me right? That outer solar system moon whose atmosphere is so cold that ice is as strong as steel and methane—the stuff that spews out of your gas stove—is in a liquid state? That Titan?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From what the \u003ca title=\"Titan's Ocean\" href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20120628/\" target=\"_blank\">Cassini spacecraft has reported to us\u003c/a>, the answer is very likely yes, buried deep under Titan's surface. You may ask, how has Cassini detected this hidden ocean's presence? Europa's ocean was inferred by the patterns of cracking in its icy crust, similar to cracks seen on Earth in floating sheets of sea ice. But Titan sports no cracks that we can see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You probably know something about the tides in Earth's oceans caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. (Oh, does it seem like I just completely changed the subject? Read on, I'm getting there.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effect of the moon \"stretching\" the ocean's waters raises two liquid bulges and as Earth's surface rotates into and out of these bulges, we experience the rising and falling of the tides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon actually raises Earth's waters by as much as two feet and in fact Earth's crust itself rises by nearly 20 inches! Earth is stretched oh-so-slightly into the shape of a football.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Cassini spacecraft has measured similar tidal deformation in Titan's shape caused by the pull of Saturn's gravity. The extremely sensitive measurements were made during several close fly-bys of Titan over a five-year period. Based on the strength of Saturn's gravity, were Titan a more-or-less solid object, its tidal bulges shouldn't be a departure of more than about three feet. However, Cassini's measurements show a stretching on the order of 30 feet!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The inference is that there is a liquid layer beneath Titan's crust--and since the composition of outer solar system objects is heavy on water ice, probably liquid water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly how far below the surface and how deep this ocean is we don't know yet, and while the crust above it is likely quite icy, what surface is to be found at the ocean's floor—icy or rocky--also is unknown. We're a bit fuzzy on those details right now, but it leaves a lot to the imagination.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds another ocean for us to worry about -- this time on Saturn's moon, Titan. \r\n","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1370998565,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":15,"wordCount":662},"headData":{"title":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan | KQED","description":"Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds another ocean for us to worry about -- this time on Saturn's moon, Titan. \r\n","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan","datePublished":"2012-07-13T15:00:40.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T00:56:05.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"40851 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=40851","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/13/deep-dark-waters-of-titan/","disqusTitle":"Deep, Dark Waters of Titan","path":"/quest/40851/deep-dark-waters-of-titan","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_40852\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/13/deep-dark-waters-of-titan/titansocean/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-40852\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-40852\" title=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg\" alt=\"Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/titansocean-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crossection of Titan and its subsurface ocean\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water, NASA finds \u003cem>another \u003c/em>ocean for us to worry about, this time on Saturn's moon, Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Funny thing about oceans in the solar system, other than Earth's deep waters, they seem to be popping up where we least expect them: in the outer solar system. Should we change our preconceptions and start expecting them there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rewind to my childhood, when my fascination with space, and in particular the planets and moons of the solar system, was only tantalized by the distant, fuzzy images collected by Earth-based telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking through my small telescope, Jupiter's four Galilean moons were sparks of light, or at best, fuzzy disks showing blotches of light and dark and perhaps a little color taken \"close up\" by the Pioneer spacecraft. This left a lot to the imagination--which was actually part of the fascination. Who might have suspected, looking at the \u003ca title=\"Europa imaged by Pioneer 10\" href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg/200px-Pioneer_10_-_p102b.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">blurry whitish fuzz-patch of Europa\u003c/a>, as seen by Pioneer, that there was an ocean hidden under the icy crust tens of miles deep and containing more liquid water than all of Earth's?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Galileo spacecraft eventually obtained images that alluded to the existence of \u003ca title=\"Europa's Ocean\" href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/12/europas-ocean-a-future-nasa-2020-mission-in-search-for-life.html\" target=\"_blank\">Europa's oceans\u003c/a>, scientists explained how heat generated through tidal flexing by Jupiter was the mechanism that kept the waters fluid. Voyager had already revealed that the \u003ca title=\"Io's volcanic activity\" href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/iovolcano.htm\" target=\"_blank\">moon Io\u003c/a> experienced heating that powered its many active volcanoes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And now there is evidence for another big ocean out there, on Saturn's moon Titan. Titan? Did you hear me right? That outer solar system moon whose atmosphere is so cold that ice is as strong as steel and methane—the stuff that spews out of your gas stove—is in a liquid state? That Titan?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From what the \u003ca title=\"Titan's Ocean\" href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20120628/\" target=\"_blank\">Cassini spacecraft has reported to us\u003c/a>, the answer is very likely yes, buried deep under Titan's surface. You may ask, how has Cassini detected this hidden ocean's presence? Europa's ocean was inferred by the patterns of cracking in its icy crust, similar to cracks seen on Earth in floating sheets of sea ice. But Titan sports no cracks that we can see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You probably know something about the tides in Earth's oceans caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. (Oh, does it seem like I just completely changed the subject? Read on, I'm getting there.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effect of the moon \"stretching\" the ocean's waters raises two liquid bulges and as Earth's surface rotates into and out of these bulges, we experience the rising and falling of the tides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon actually raises Earth's waters by as much as two feet and in fact Earth's crust itself rises by nearly 20 inches! Earth is stretched oh-so-slightly into the shape of a football.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Cassini spacecraft has measured similar tidal deformation in Titan's shape caused by the pull of Saturn's gravity. The extremely sensitive measurements were made during several close fly-bys of Titan over a five-year period. Based on the strength of Saturn's gravity, were Titan a more-or-less solid object, its tidal bulges shouldn't be a departure of more than about three feet. However, Cassini's measurements show a stretching on the order of 30 feet!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The inference is that there is a liquid layer beneath Titan's crust--and since the composition of outer solar system objects is heavy on water ice, probably liquid water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly how far below the surface and how deep this ocean is we don't know yet, and while the crust above it is likely quite icy, what surface is to be found at the ocean's floor—icy or rocky--also is unknown. We're a bit fuzzy on those details right now, but it leaves a lot to the imagination.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/40851/deep-dark-waters-of-titan","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_505","quest_544","quest_1027","quest_1164","quest_1492","quest_1918","quest_2034","quest_13202","quest_2513","quest_2936","quest_2937","quest_2947","quest_11240"],"featImg":"quest_40852","label":"quest"},"quest_30338":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_30338","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"30338","score":null,"sort":[1328803239000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"vostok-and-europa","title":"What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?","publishDate":1328803239,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Does the prospect of life in subglacial Lake Vostok really point to the same on the icy satellite Europa? The answer may surprise you.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1329840454,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":12,"wordCount":856},"headData":{"title":"What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa? | KQED","description":"Does the prospect of life in subglacial Lake Vostok really point to the same on the icy satellite Europa? The answer may surprise you.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?","datePublished":"2012-02-09T16:00:39.000Z","dateModified":"2012-02-21T16:07:34.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"30338 http://science.kqed.org/quest/?p=30338","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/","disqusTitle":"What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?","path":"/quest/30338/vostok-and-europa","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/30338/vostok-and-europa","authors":["6228"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_4","quest_11"],"tags":["quest_176","quest_1027","quest_10683","quest_1054","quest_2218","quest_13202"],"featImg":"quest_30340","label":"quest"},"quest_3589":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_3589","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"3589","score":null,"sort":[1252693639000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"jumpin-jupiter-where-did-the-galileans-go","title":"Jumpin' Jupiter! Where Did the Galileans Go?","publishDate":1252693639,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/09/Jupiter-3-2009-09-02.jpg\">\u003cem>Three views of Jupiter before, during, and after the disappearing act by its four large moons. Credit, Conrad Jung, Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Now you see them, now you don't! Had Galileo spied the planet Jupiter with his telescope 400 years ago on a night such as a couple of Thursdays ago, would the history of modern astronomy have unfolded any differently? Would Jupiter's four large \"Galilean\" moons have been named so in his honor? Would we still think that everything revolves around the Earth? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What am I talking about? About a week ago a relatively rare alignment of Jupiter and its four Galilean moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—made for a brief time in which the moons disappeared, hidden behind and in front of their massive parent planet. For that brief time, Earth, Jupiter, and all four Galileans coincided on a nearly perfect line. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event took place late in the evening on September 2nd, a little after 10:00 PM. \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/ganymede.htm\">Ganymede \u003c/a> (the Solar System's largest moon) and \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/europa.htm\">Europa \u003c/a>(the \"snowball\" with the probable deep liquid water oceans under its icy crust) crossed in front of Jupiter's disk, and the other pair, \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/io.htm\">Io \u003c/a>(the volcano moon) and \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/callisto.htm\">Callisto \u003c/a>passed behind it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's not uncommon for one of these moons to be out of view for a time when you aim a telescope at Jupiter. Even Galileo, on his first telescopic look at Jupiter, saw only three of them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The disappearance of two or three of them at once is more rare, however, and a vanishing act by all four only happens a few times in a lifetime—every century, there are about 20 such alignments. The last such event prior to last week's was back in the 1980's; the next one won't happen until 2019. This event was not only \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org/vsc/observatory/nellie/astrophotos/captions/jupiter-2009-09-02.asp\">observed on September 2nd\u003c/a> by Chabot Space & Science Center astronomer Conrad Jung, but also in 1913 by then Chabot Observatory director Charles Burckhalter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When Galileo took his newly made telescope and became the first person in history to look at Jupiter through the new invention, he saw three star-like points of light positioned around Jupiter, roughly on a common line that passed through the planet. At first he thought they might be stars, but on subsequent nights he observed that not only did these \"stars\" follow Jupiter's own movement through space, they changed position relative to each other. This led to Galileo's hypothesis that these were satellites in orbit around Jupiter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rest is history (oh, and lifelong house arrest for Galileo for suggesting that there was something in the Universe that didn't revolve directly around the Earth…). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'm sure that if Galileo had first looked at Jupiter on one of these rare nights and saw no moons, he would certainly have discovered them the next time he looked at Jupiter—so maybe it wouldn't have changed the unfolding of historical events much. But I wonder which would have been more surprising to him: seeing the moons on the first look, or observing them to appear out of nowhere after the initial observation of a solitary Jupiter….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Had Galileo spied the planet Jupiter with his telescope 400 years ago on a night such as a couple of Thursdays ago, would the history of modern astronomy have unfolded any differently?","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1371078042,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":11,"wordCount":546},"headData":{"title":"Jumpin' Jupiter! Where Did the Galileans Go? | KQED","description":"Had Galileo spied the planet Jupiter with his telescope 400 years ago on a night such as a couple of Thursdays ago, would the history of modern astronomy have unfolded any differently?","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":"","schema":{"@context":"http://schema.org","@type":"Article","headline":"Jumpin' Jupiter! Where Did the Galileans Go?","datePublished":"2009-09-11T18:27:19.000Z","dateModified":"2013-06-12T23:00:42.000Z","image":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/KQED-OG-Image@1x.png"}},"disqusIdentifier":"3589 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=3589","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/09/11/jumpin-jupiter-where-did-the-galileans-go/","disqusTitle":"Jumpin' Jupiter! Where Did the Galileans Go?","path":"/quest/3589/jumpin-jupiter-where-did-the-galileans-go","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/09/Jupiter-3-2009-09-02.jpg\">\u003cem>Three views of Jupiter before, during, and after the disappearing act by its four large moons. Credit, Conrad Jung, Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Now you see them, now you don't! Had Galileo spied the planet Jupiter with his telescope 400 years ago on a night such as a couple of Thursdays ago, would the history of modern astronomy have unfolded any differently? Would Jupiter's four large \"Galilean\" moons have been named so in his honor? Would we still think that everything revolves around the Earth? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What am I talking about? About a week ago a relatively rare alignment of Jupiter and its four Galilean moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—made for a brief time in which the moons disappeared, hidden behind and in front of their massive parent planet. For that brief time, Earth, Jupiter, and all four Galileans coincided on a nearly perfect line. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event took place late in the evening on September 2nd, a little after 10:00 PM. \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/ganymede.htm\">Ganymede \u003c/a> (the Solar System's largest moon) and \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/europa.htm\">Europa \u003c/a>(the \"snowball\" with the probable deep liquid water oceans under its icy crust) crossed in front of Jupiter's disk, and the other pair, \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/io.htm\">Io \u003c/a>(the volcano moon) and \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/callisto.htm\">Callisto \u003c/a>passed behind it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's not uncommon for one of these moons to be out of view for a time when you aim a telescope at Jupiter. Even Galileo, on his first telescopic look at Jupiter, saw only three of them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The disappearance of two or three of them at once is more rare, however, and a vanishing act by all four only happens a few times in a lifetime—every century, there are about 20 such alignments. The last such event prior to last week's was back in the 1980's; the next one won't happen until 2019. This event was not only \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org/vsc/observatory/nellie/astrophotos/captions/jupiter-2009-09-02.asp\">observed on September 2nd\u003c/a> by Chabot Space & Science Center astronomer Conrad Jung, but also in 1913 by then Chabot Observatory director Charles Burckhalter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When Galileo took his newly made telescope and became the first person in history to look at Jupiter through the new invention, he saw three star-like points of light positioned around Jupiter, roughly on a common line that passed through the planet. At first he thought they might be stars, but on subsequent nights he observed that not only did these \"stars\" follow Jupiter's own movement through space, they changed position relative to each other. This led to Galileo's hypothesis that these were satellites in orbit around Jupiter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rest is history (oh, and lifelong house arrest for Galileo for suggesting that there was something in the Universe that didn't revolve directly around the Earth…). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'm sure that if Galileo had first looked at Jupiter on one of these rare nights and saw no moons, he would certainly have discovered them the next time he looked at Jupiter—so maybe it wouldn't have changed the unfolding of historical events much. But I wonder which would have been more surprising to him: seeing the moons on the first look, or observing them to appear out of nowhere after the initial observation of a solitary Jupiter….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/3589/jumpin-jupiter-where-did-the-galileans-go","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_1"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_463","quest_543","quest_545","quest_1027","quest_1164","quest_1170","quest_1492","quest_1551"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? 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But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.","airtime":"THU 10pm, FRI 1am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Commonwealth Club of California"},"link":"/radio/program/commonwealth-club","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Commonwealth-Club-of-California-p1060/"}},"considerthis":{"id":"considerthis","title":"Consider This","tagline":"Make sense of the day","info":"Make sense of the day. Every weekday afternoon, Consider This helps you consider the major stories of the day in less than 15 minutes, featuring the reporting and storytelling resources of NPR. 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No other part of the globe has experienced such dynamic political and social change in recent years.","airtime":"SAT 3am-4am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Inside-Europe-Podcast-Tile-300x300-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Deutsche Welle"},"link":"/radio/program/inside-europe","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/inside-europe/id80106806?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Inside-Europe-p731/","rss":"https://partner.dw.com/xml/podcast_inside-europe"}},"latino-usa":{"id":"latino-usa","title":"Latino USA","airtime":"MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm","info":"Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"http://latinousa.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/latino-usa","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/xtTd","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Latino-USA-p621/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"}},"live-from-here-highlights":{"id":"live-from-here-highlights","title":"Live from Here Highlights","info":"Chris Thile steps to the mic as the host of Live from Here (formerly A Prairie Home Companion), a live public radio variety show. 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Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.","airtime":"MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.marketplace.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"American Public Media"},"link":"/radio/program/marketplace","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=201853034&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/APM-Marketplace-p88/","rss":"https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"}},"mindshift":{"id":"mindshift","title":"MindShift","tagline":"A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids","info":"The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn","officialWebsiteLink":"/mindshift/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"2"},"link":"/podcasts/mindshift","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"}},"morning-edition":{"id":"morning-edition","title":"Morning Edition","info":"\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.","airtime":"MON-FRI 3am-9am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/morning-edition"},"onourwatch":{"id":"onourwatch","title":"On Our Watch","tagline":"Police secrets, unsealed","info":"For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. 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