^{Reservoirs of surface water are rarely as clean as groundwater. To reproduce the natural cleansing of aquifers, reservoir operators must use treatment devices like these antique sand filters at Chabot Reservoir.}

Wherever settlers arrived in America, their first concern was water. The ideal source of good water was not a babbling brook, although that was good enough for irrigating crops and brewing beer. Surface water varies with the seasons, is readily muddied, and we all know what fish do in it. Best was a steady, cool flow from a protected spring—that is, groundwater. Before wellsprings were a metaphor, they were the very basis of America's first settlements. (March 6–12, 2011 is National Groundwater Awareness Week to help remind us of these historic truths.)

As settlements grew into towns that in turn became cities, larger water sources could be engineered. Ancient Rome owed its prominence to its abundant water supply, brought by aqueduct from Apennine Mountain springs. Mighty New York captured the clean Catskill rains in a network of reservoirs that fed their water by gravity to Manhattan. San Francisco raided a national park in the Sierra Nevada, a hundred miles away, for its water supply. Now every Bay Area river has been harnessed for civic purposes. But groundwater is still a major player here, if a largely invisible one.

Groundwater wells were part of every household in the early days, but the typical shallow aquifer, or water-bearing zone, is not suited for hard use. It's too closely connected to the surface; indeed every permanent stream can be thought of as living groundwater, where erosion cuts into the top of the aquifer. Once too many wells tap the surface aquifer, the level of water underground—the water table—is depressed. Eventually the streams are affected, and the costs of digging ever deeper bring an end to the household well.

A growing city has to be more organized about its water. Most Bay Area cities rely on agencies that deliver surface water from a reservoir. The big advantages of a reservoir are energy and size: it's easy to deliver water downhill from the dam, and centralized treatment plants can do an efficient job filtering and disinfecting the water. The big advantages of groundwater are its quality, its closeness and its resistance to drought. Both types of water source must be carefully managed for the long term by well-trained technicians.

Today the South Bay still relies on groundwater. San Jose pumps about 40 percent of its water from aquifers beneath it. Nearby Sunnyvale, Campbell and Santa Clara also produce significant amounts. Farther south, Morgan Hill and Gilroy rely exclusively on groundwater. And Fremont has a big stake in it too.

San Jose used to pump more aggressively than today, but problems arose when the land began to sink. Parts of Alviso, on the city's northern edge, recorded as much as 13 feet of subsidence. Seawater began to intrude into the aquifers as well. Today water managers have arrested the subsidence by ensuring that the aquifer is properly recharged using streamflow and special infiltration basins.

Much of Fremont's water comes from its bountiful aquifer in the Niles Cone, a large fan of gravel spreading out from the mouth of Alameda Canyon. Today the city sends Alameda Creek's water into the Cone through the Quarry Lakes, while pumping groundwater out of it in a strategy that helps push back invading Bay water.

San Francisco, of course, gets pristine Sierra water from O'Shaunnessy Dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Only one-third of Hetch Hetchy's water gets to the city, though, as more than a dozen other Bay Area cities use it.

_{Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct crosses the Great Valley near route 132, marked by monuments like this.}

The city still uses its own groundwater to irrigate Golden Gate Park and the zoo. Recently San Francisco has moved to reopen the aquifers as an emergency supply. It's also making plans to store Hetch Hetchy water in Peninsula aquifers.

Although large-scale water projects serve the masses, there is still a place for the custom well. Outlying residents, farms and landscape-intensive businesses can often save money using water from their own property. Today these uses of groundwater provide our region with much-needed resilience in the face of drought and earthquake. Wherever we live, the role of groundwater continues—just below the surface.

Major water districts of the Bay Area:

Alameda County Water District
Contra Costa Water District
East Bay Municipal Utilities District
Marin Municipal Water District
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
San Jose Water
Santa Clara Valley Water District
Solano County Water Agency
Sonoma County Water Agency

And don't forget water-ed.org

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Transforming food waste into energy could be a good investment, both environmentally and economically.

When I first considered reporting on a food scraps to energy program I wasn't really thinking of the smells I would encounter. Granted it's not nearly as bad as raw sewage, but 25 tons of decomposing food can pack a punch. Then I saw the sludge and thought what a nightmare for folks who can't stand their foods mingling on the dinner plate. Fortunately, I have a strong stomach.

The story intrigued me because it seemed like converting food waste to methane for energy use was a no- brainer. Why isn't everyone doing this? So far the program, run by the East Bay Municipal Utility District, seems like a success but as it turns out there are a few challenges, which may explain why it's not so widespread.

First, the wastewater plant in Oakland has to deal with non-organic items that accidentally wind up in restaurant green bins, such as forks, plastic wrap, even pennies. These pesky interlopers damage grinders and other machinery and are a constant and costly headache for the utility. That's why the agency wants more control over the sorting and is planning to bring the process on site. Right now the haulers and the restaurants control the pre-sorting process.

Then there's the question of how easy this program can be replicated at other wastewater plants. The East Bay facility already had the infrastructure and capacity to take on this program. It's investing to expand it, but some plants don't even have these anaerobic digesters and those that do may or may not have the ability to produce electricity. This could well require costly investments in tough economic times.

Then there's the buy-in needed by the community. The Bay Area is a mecca for food and green consciousness. It doesn't take much to get some portion of restaurants to jump on board. But even here in the Bay Area some have dismissed the program as a hassle. So you can imagine taking it to another part of the state or country where it might well meet with eye rolling and some "so Berkeley" comments.

There's also some environmental fallout from this process. When the plant burns methane for energy it creates carbon dioxide, another greenhouse gas. But methane is some 23 times more potent that Co2. So It's better to capture and use the methane. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says the Co2 is a lesser of two evils.

In fact, the Agency is not dissuaded by any of the challenges. It's pushing the food waste to methane program to other wastewater treatment plants nationwide. It's even putting together a "toolkit" to show why it could be a good investment, environmentally and economically.

Listen to Power Up With Leftovers radio report online.

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get tac redits and rebates for doing the right thing? What could be better? Image source: Mark_W

Top Five Federal Tax Credits (for improvements made from January 1, 2009 through December 31^st, 2010)

1.      Adding qualifying insulation to an existing home-30% of cost, up to $1,500 for all upgrades other than renewable energy systems.

2.      Energy Star-qualified metal roofs or asphalt roof replacements-30% of cost, up to $1,500 for all upgrades other than renewable energy systems.

3.      Efficient gas, oil, propane, and electric heat pump water heater replacements-30% of cost, up to $1,500 for all upgrades other than renewable energy systems.

4.      Solar water heating systems in new or existing homes-30% of cost.

5.      Photovoltaic (PV) systems in new and existing homes-30% of cost.

The feds are also giving money to the states for appliance rebates and is offering tax credits for certain window and door upgrades for new and existing homes, small wind energy systems, biomass stoves, geothermal heat pumps, fuel cells, efficient cars, and other equipment. For more detailed information about the federal tax credits, go to the California Building Performance Contactors Association.

*Top Five State Rebates (not time limited but rebates usually last until the money for rebates in each category runs out)

1. Adding qualifying insulation to an existing home-PG&E offers $0.15 per square foot in rebates.

2. Qualifying "Cool Roofs" replacement roofs-PG&E offers $0.10 or $0.20 per square foot depending on roof type.

3. Efficient gas and electric storage water heater replacements: PG&E offers $30 rebates.

4. Energy- and water-efficient clothes washers-PG&E offers $35 or $75 rebates depending on efficiency level and East Bay Municipal Utility District offers $125 rebates.

5. Irrigation systems and high-efficiency toilets-East Bay Municipal Utility District offers up to $1,000 rebate for qualifying water saving irrigation hardware and landscape material costs; up to $500 for WaterSmart replacement irrigation timers; and up to $150 for high-efficiency toilets (HET).

*This only lists rebates offered through PG&E and the East Bay Municipal Utility District, since these are the utilities that I know best. But most utilities offer similar rebates. For more detailed information about these and other California rebates for efficiency upgrades and water and energy efficient appliances, see Flex Your Power.

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For those in the East Bay, a lush green lawn for
lounging may become a thing of the past.
Photo Credit Michele Nikoloff

It was the talk of my Wednesday morning Pilates class. "I'm letting my lawn die, but saving the plants. Plants are harder to replace." "We only lived in our house six months last year! How are we going to reduce 19 percent of nothing?" "We get our irrigation water from a creek." "We don't have any grass."

This was in response to the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) declaring a water emergency and implementing water-rationing rules, to begin August 1. Residential customers in single-family homes must cut back their water use by 19 percent compared to their average over the past three years. Apartment dwellers only have to cut back 11 percent. No washing your car without a shut-off nozzle. No washing down sidewalks or driveways, and any fountains and ponds should be filled with recycled water only.

Anyone who uses less than 100 gallons of water a day is off the hook. Prices for water over 100 gallons per day will increase 10 percent. Those who don't cut back at least 10 percent will have to pay $2 for every 750 gallons of water they use over that amount. EBMUD is hiring water police to patrol the neighborhoods looking for water wasters. You'll get some warnings for breaking the rules, but repeat offenders could have their water cut off.

For those of us who live east of the Caldecott Tunnel, cutting back almost 20 percent means that lawns will have to die. Most of our water use, on average, goes to keep landscaping alive. My wife and I are letting most of our front lawn return to dessert. We will eventually have what's left of the grass torn out and replaced with native, water-sipping plants and lots and lots of mulch. (Right now landscapers are pretty busy.) Those who live west of the Caldecott will have an easier time saving water because it is on average cooler than on the east side, and lawns in places like Oakland, Berkeley, and El Cerrito are relatively small. They will have to save on indoor water use, however.

For help on saving water, and to find out how to get free low-flow fixtures for your home, go to the EBMUD Web site, www.ebmud.com. There is a bonus to saving water indoors. Saving hot water by using low-flow showerheads, showering or bathing every other day, washing only full loads of dishes in your dishwasher, washing only full loads of laundry in your washing machine, and using cold water laundry detergent, will save you energy and money as well as water. For those of us who don't yet have dual-flush toilets that flush a little for number 1 and more for number 2, it's good to remember the mantra of the 1970s water crisis, "If it's brown, flush it down. If it's yellow, let it mellow." You better explain that to the houseguest you host this summer from the flooded Midwest.

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