Nobel Winner Used Stars to Map History of the Universe
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She moved to the Bay Area in 1996 to study documentary filmmaking at the University of California, Berkeley, where she received master’s degrees in journalism and Latin American studies.","avatar":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/6d82c20152affd1b434c31a904c40809?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twitter":"gabrielaquirosr","facebook":null,"instagram":null,"linkedin":null,"sites":[{"site":"science","roles":["editor"]},{"site":"quest","roles":["editor","ef_view_calendar","ef_view_story_budget"]}],"headData":{"title":"Gabriela Quirós | KQED","description":"Video Producer and Reporter","ogImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/6d82c20152affd1b434c31a904c40809?s=600&d=blank&r=g","twImgSrc":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/6d82c20152affd1b434c31a904c40809?s=600&d=blank&r=g"},"isLoading":false,"link":"/author/gabriela-quiros"},"kishore-hari":{"type":"authors","id":"10201","meta":{"index":"authors_1591205172","id":"10201","found":true},"name":"Kishore Hari","firstName":"Kishore","lastName":"Hari","slug":"kishore-hari","email":"kishorehari@gmail.com","display_author_email":false,"staff_mastheads":[],"title":null,"bio":"\u003cstrong>Kishore Hari\u003c/strong> is the founder \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencecafesf.com\">Down to a Science\u003c/a>, a science cafe based in San Francisco. He is most passionate about making science discussion fun and accessible for adults, the kind of discussion that leads to positive change in the world. Professionally, he is a water treatment consultant in San Francisco. Originally from Buffalo, NY, Kishore came to the Bay Area to get a chemistry degree from UC Berkeley. 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And it has nothing to do with Star Wars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists call it dark energy, and it is believed to be causing galaxies to move away from each other faster and faster. Now, researchers who have been trying to figure it out for more than 20 years by studying supernovae – stars that exploded billions of years ago – are hoping to send a telescope into space, where they’ll be able to get a better look.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can see hundreds of times more sky at a time,” said Saul Perlmutter, a professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. “And it’s also designed for just the wave length range, just the colors, where we need to study the supernovae and the other galaxies in order to study dark energy.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new NASA telescope is known as \u003ca href=\"http://wfirst.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">WFIRST\u003c/a>, which stands for wide-field infrared survey telescope. If Congress approves initial development funds of $50 million to $100 million by the end of the year, WFIRST could launch sometime between 2022 and 2025.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A telescope like it has been in the works for more than 15 years, at one point developed by a Joint Dark Energy Mission made up of NASA and the Department of Energy. Now the project is back in NASA’s hands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the project’s bumpy history, Perlmutter is optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“At this point things are sounding good,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding, with galaxies moving away from each other. Before Hubble’s discovery, even Albert Einstein believed that the universe was static.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eighty years later, in 2011, Perlmutter, who also is an astrophysicist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, shared the Nobel Prize in physics for his contributions to the discovery that the expansion of the universe started to accelerate seven billion years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Just imagine that you are living here on a galaxy, and there’s galaxies forever going in all directions, nothing but galaxies, no end,” said Perlmutter gesturing with his arms. “And the only thing I mean when I’m saying that the universe is expanding is that we’re sort of pumping extra space between the galaxies. And when we say it’s accelerating, we just mean that that extra pumping is happening faster and faster and the distances are growing bigger and bigger more and more quickly.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To figure out that the expansion was accelerating, Perlmutter and his team used the light from supernovae – stars that exploded billions of years ago – to plot out the history of the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A particular kind of supernova stars, called Type 1a, explode in a very similar way every time, brightening like fireworks and then fading away. And they reach the same peak brightness every time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their predictability makes these exploding stars what researchers call “standard candles.” Their initial brightness is constant and grows fainter with distance. Since researchers know light always travels at 186,000 miles per second, they’re able to calculate how long ago these supernovae exploded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When a supernova explodes, the light starts spreading out in all directions, much like the ripples on the water spread out when you drop a pebble into a lake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The supernovae Perlmutter studies exploded billions of years ago. As the light from their explosions was traveling toward our galaxy, our solar system had time to develop, dinosaurs had a chance to come and go, and humans made their grand entrance and had time to build telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_99168\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-99168\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-800x450.jpg\" alt='Saul Perlmutter, of the University of California, Berkeley, studies dark energy, the mysterious \"something\" that is making galaxies move away from each other faster and faster. ' width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Saul Perlmutter, of the University of California, Berkeley, studies dark energy, the mysterious \"something\" that is making galaxies move away from each other faster and faster. \u003ccite>(Jenny Oh/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“While the light is traveling to us through the universe, the universe is expanding. And everything in the universe that’s not nailed down expands with the universe,” said Perlmutter. “That includes the very wavelengths of the photons of light that are traveling to us from the supernova.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the light is moving away from the observer, it appears red, in a phenomenon known as “redshift.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Now with these two ingredients – the brightness of the supernova and how much the light has been shifted towards the red in its appearance – you now can just read off the history of the expansion of the universe,” said Perlmutter, “because the brightness tells you how far back in time any given supernova event occurred, and the red shift tells us how much the universe has expanded since that time. And now we just do this for five, ten, 20, 40 supernovae at different times back in history and they, one after another, tell us for each time in history how much the universe has stretched since that time.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With WFIRST, astronomers plan to study supernovae that are farther away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The telescope, which would be launched to space on a satellite, would also include technology to study dark energy in other ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One new technique called Baryon Acoustic Oscillations, or BAO for short, allows scientists to refine their history of the universe by comparing the average distance between galaxies at different points in time with the distances between the hot and cold spots just after the Big Bang. The hotter spots were denser and gave rise to more galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Congress were to move forward with WFIRST, it would be an exciting step for scientists trying to figure out what dark energy might be, said Perlmutter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You really would be able to probe into the history of the expansion of the universe in a way that we’ve never done before,” he said. “This would be the big chance of finding out what dark energy is in our lifetime.”\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Congress could approve funding for a space telescope that would help scientists investigate dark energy.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1448917547,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":25,"wordCount":1001},"headData":{"title":"Bringing Dark Energy to Light | KQED","description":"Congress could approve funding for a space telescope that would help scientists investigate dark energy.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"17428 http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy/","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2015/11/25/dark-energy/","disqusTitle":"Bringing Dark Energy to Light","videoEmbed":"https://youtu.be/6AMthlVpdds","source":"Astronomy","path":"/quest/17428/dark-energy","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>There’s a mysterious force that makes up about two-thirds of the universe. And it has nothing to do with Star Wars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists call it dark energy, and it is believed to be causing galaxies to move away from each other faster and faster. Now, researchers who have been trying to figure it out for more than 20 years by studying supernovae – stars that exploded billions of years ago – are hoping to send a telescope into space, where they’ll be able to get a better look.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can see hundreds of times more sky at a time,” said Saul Perlmutter, a professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. “And it’s also designed for just the wave length range, just the colors, where we need to study the supernovae and the other galaxies in order to study dark energy.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new NASA telescope is known as \u003ca href=\"http://wfirst.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">WFIRST\u003c/a>, which stands for wide-field infrared survey telescope. If Congress approves initial development funds of $50 million to $100 million by the end of the year, WFIRST could launch sometime between 2022 and 2025.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A telescope like it has been in the works for more than 15 years, at one point developed by a Joint Dark Energy Mission made up of NASA and the Department of Energy. Now the project is back in NASA’s hands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the project’s bumpy history, Perlmutter is optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“At this point things are sounding good,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding, with galaxies moving away from each other. Before Hubble’s discovery, even Albert Einstein believed that the universe was static.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eighty years later, in 2011, Perlmutter, who also is an astrophysicist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, shared the Nobel Prize in physics for his contributions to the discovery that the expansion of the universe started to accelerate seven billion years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Just imagine that you are living here on a galaxy, and there’s galaxies forever going in all directions, nothing but galaxies, no end,” said Perlmutter gesturing with his arms. “And the only thing I mean when I’m saying that the universe is expanding is that we’re sort of pumping extra space between the galaxies. And when we say it’s accelerating, we just mean that that extra pumping is happening faster and faster and the distances are growing bigger and bigger more and more quickly.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To figure out that the expansion was accelerating, Perlmutter and his team used the light from supernovae – stars that exploded billions of years ago – to plot out the history of the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A particular kind of supernova stars, called Type 1a, explode in a very similar way every time, brightening like fireworks and then fading away. And they reach the same peak brightness every time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their predictability makes these exploding stars what researchers call “standard candles.” Their initial brightness is constant and grows fainter with distance. Since researchers know light always travels at 186,000 miles per second, they’re able to calculate how long ago these supernovae exploded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When a supernova explodes, the light starts spreading out in all directions, much like the ripples on the water spread out when you drop a pebble into a lake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The supernovae Perlmutter studies exploded billions of years ago. As the light from their explosions was traveling toward our galaxy, our solar system had time to develop, dinosaurs had a chance to come and go, and humans made their grand entrance and had time to build telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_99168\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-99168\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-800x450.jpg\" alt='Saul Perlmutter, of the University of California, Berkeley, studies dark energy, the mysterious \"something\" that is making galaxies move away from each other faster and faster. ' width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/Saul-Perlmutter-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Saul Perlmutter, of the University of California, Berkeley, studies dark energy, the mysterious \"something\" that is making galaxies move away from each other faster and faster. \u003ccite>(Jenny Oh/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“While the light is traveling to us through the universe, the universe is expanding. And everything in the universe that’s not nailed down expands with the universe,” said Perlmutter. “That includes the very wavelengths of the photons of light that are traveling to us from the supernova.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the light is moving away from the observer, it appears red, in a phenomenon known as “redshift.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Now with these two ingredients – the brightness of the supernova and how much the light has been shifted towards the red in its appearance – you now can just read off the history of the expansion of the universe,” said Perlmutter, “because the brightness tells you how far back in time any given supernova event occurred, and the red shift tells us how much the universe has expanded since that time. And now we just do this for five, ten, 20, 40 supernovae at different times back in history and they, one after another, tell us for each time in history how much the universe has stretched since that time.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With WFIRST, astronomers plan to study supernovae that are farther away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The telescope, which would be launched to space on a satellite, would also include technology to study dark energy in other ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One new technique called Baryon Acoustic Oscillations, or BAO for short, allows scientists to refine their history of the universe by comparing the average distance between galaxies at different points in time with the distances between the hot and cold spots just after the Big Bang. The hotter spots were denser and gave rise to more galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Congress were to move forward with WFIRST, it would be an exciting step for scientists trying to figure out what dark energy might be, said Perlmutter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You really would be able to probe into the history of the expansion of the universe in a way that we’ve never done before,” he said. “This would be the big chance of finding out what dark energy is in our lifetime.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/17428/dark-energy","authors":["6186"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_16","quest_3422"],"tags":["quest_767","quest_1626","quest_2349","quest_13392","quest_2837","quest_3071","quest_13423"],"featImg":"quest_81279","label":"source_quest_17428"},"quest_14592":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_14592","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"14592","score":null,"sort":[1305910857000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"dark-endeavours","title":"Dark Endeavours","publishDate":1305910857,"format":"standard","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/AMSonISSbig.jpg\">\u003cem>Artist concept of AMS-2 mounted on the ISS.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YBWaFIs1Rc\">Space Shuttle Endeavour lifted off \u003c/a>on its 25th and final mission to space on Monday morning, it carried in its cargo bay more than just supplies for the International Space Station. Alongside the containers of TV dinners, oxygen bottles, water tanks, and other various and sundry necessities was a bus-sized, two billion dollar observatory that will probe some of our Universe's deepest, darkest secrets: dark matter, and the unaccounted antimatter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://ams.nasa.gov/about.html\">Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2 (AMS-2)\u003c/a>, like other space-borne observatory satellites, will make its observations outside of Earth's atmosphere, attached to the International Space Station—but unlike \"conventional\" satellite observatories such as the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/main/index.html\">Kepler\u003c/a>, and the \u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/a>, AMS-2 will not observe electromagnetic radiation (light), but rather cosmic rays.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cosmic rays are energetic, electrically charged subatomic particles whizzing through space, originating from various places such as the Sun, distant stars and supernovae, and other high-energy sources from the most distant reaches of the known Universe. Most cosmic rays are simply high-speed protons (hydrogen nuclei) and alpha particles (helium nuclei). Less than 1% of cosmic rays are heavier atomic nuclei, and electrons. All of these particles are things familiar to us on Earth, the main differences being their exotic origins and their extremely high speeds—often approaching the speed of light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A tiny fraction of cosmic rays are exotic particles indeed: antimatter, in the form of positrons (the positively charged antimatter counterpart of electrons) and anti-protons. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What is AMS-2 looking for? In a nutshell, it's looking for what we cannot see…. Only about 5% of the Universe is composed of \"ordinary\" matter—the stuff we are made of, and which we can see with telescopes out in the universe by virtue of the light it emits: stars, galaxies, nebulae, giant molecular clouds, and more. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An estimated 95% of the Universe's bulk is made up of \"dark\" stuff—\u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/dark_matter.html\">dark matter \u003c/a>(about 20%) and dark energy. Some of this dark matter may be accounted for by massive objects that we can't see, such as black holes, but the primary constituent probably consists of exotic particles that defy direct detection. A number of particles that fit this bill have been theorized, like neutrinos, and more recently \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2010/01/hold-on-higgs-now-its-neutralinos-.html\">neutralinos\u003c/a>. In theory, interactions between neutralinos should produce charged particles in the form of cosmic rays that AMS-2 should be able to detect. If it does, then we'll have observational evidence for the existence of this exotic particle, which would shed some light onto some of the Universe's dark mystery….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMS-2 will also look for antimatter. The Big Bang theory (the \u003cstrong>theory\u003c/strong>, not the TV show) of the formation of the Universe suggests that there should be equal parts matter and its counterpart antimatter, but so far we've mostly seen only the former. While there are positrons and anti-protons flying about that can be accounted for by processes involving nuclear interactions, if AMS-2 can detect a more complex anti-particle, like an anti-helium nucleus (an atom composed of two anti-protons, two anti-neutrons, and two positrons), then we'll have an example of antimatter that formed by more complex processes than a random nuclear collision or decay. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMS-2's \"lens\" is not made of glass, but of magnetic fields. Conventional telescopes bend and focus light with glass lenses or curved mirrors, but AMS-2 will observe electrically charged cosmic rays, which can be collected and sorted with magnetic force. AMS-2 will count cosmic rays, determine what types of particles they are, and how much energy they possess (how fast they are moving). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From Earth's surface observing cosmic rays is nearly impossible, at best. The particles interact with the nuclei of atoms in our atmosphere, forming a different subatomic particle and a burst of \"secondary\" cosmic radiation—which can be detected by ground-based instruments, but only as \"second hand\" news. In fact, it is cosmic ray interactions with ordinary carbon (carbon 12) in Earth's atmosphere that transform them into the radioisotope carbon 14, which scientists take advantage of to determine how long a sample of formerly living material has been dead (as in carbon dating). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, stay tuned for news on what scientists discover as they peer into the very dark darkness of a currently unknown realm of existence. Should be exciting….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"When NASA's Space Shuttle Endeavour lifted off on its 25th and final mission to space on Monday morning, it carried a bus-sized, two billion dollar observatory that will probe some of our Universe's deepest, darkest secrets: dark matter, and the unaccounted antimatter.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1305910857,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":14,"wordCount":760},"headData":{"title":"Dark Endeavours | KQED","description":"When NASA's Space Shuttle Endeavour lifted off on its 25th and final mission to space on Monday morning, it carried a bus-sized, two billion dollar observatory that will probe some of our Universe's deepest, darkest secrets: dark matter, and the unaccounted antimatter.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"14592 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=14592","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/05/20/dark-endeavours/","disqusTitle":"Dark Endeavours","path":"/quest/14592/dark-endeavours","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/05/AMSonISSbig.jpg\">\u003cem>Artist concept of AMS-2 mounted on the ISS.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YBWaFIs1Rc\">Space Shuttle Endeavour lifted off \u003c/a>on its 25th and final mission to space on Monday morning, it carried in its cargo bay more than just supplies for the International Space Station. Alongside the containers of TV dinners, oxygen bottles, water tanks, and other various and sundry necessities was a bus-sized, two billion dollar observatory that will probe some of our Universe's deepest, darkest secrets: dark matter, and the unaccounted antimatter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://ams.nasa.gov/about.html\">Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2 (AMS-2)\u003c/a>, like other space-borne observatory satellites, will make its observations outside of Earth's atmosphere, attached to the International Space Station—but unlike \"conventional\" satellite observatories such as the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/main/index.html\">Kepler\u003c/a>, and the \u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/a>, AMS-2 will not observe electromagnetic radiation (light), but rather cosmic rays.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cosmic rays are energetic, electrically charged subatomic particles whizzing through space, originating from various places such as the Sun, distant stars and supernovae, and other high-energy sources from the most distant reaches of the known Universe. Most cosmic rays are simply high-speed protons (hydrogen nuclei) and alpha particles (helium nuclei). Less than 1% of cosmic rays are heavier atomic nuclei, and electrons. All of these particles are things familiar to us on Earth, the main differences being their exotic origins and their extremely high speeds—often approaching the speed of light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A tiny fraction of cosmic rays are exotic particles indeed: antimatter, in the form of positrons (the positively charged antimatter counterpart of electrons) and anti-protons. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What is AMS-2 looking for? In a nutshell, it's looking for what we cannot see…. Only about 5% of the Universe is composed of \"ordinary\" matter—the stuff we are made of, and which we can see with telescopes out in the universe by virtue of the light it emits: stars, galaxies, nebulae, giant molecular clouds, and more. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An estimated 95% of the Universe's bulk is made up of \"dark\" stuff—\u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/dark_matter.html\">dark matter \u003c/a>(about 20%) and dark energy. Some of this dark matter may be accounted for by massive objects that we can't see, such as black holes, but the primary constituent probably consists of exotic particles that defy direct detection. A number of particles that fit this bill have been theorized, like neutrinos, and more recently \u003ca href=\"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2010/01/hold-on-higgs-now-its-neutralinos-.html\">neutralinos\u003c/a>. In theory, interactions between neutralinos should produce charged particles in the form of cosmic rays that AMS-2 should be able to detect. If it does, then we'll have observational evidence for the existence of this exotic particle, which would shed some light onto some of the Universe's dark mystery….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMS-2 will also look for antimatter. The Big Bang theory (the \u003cstrong>theory\u003c/strong>, not the TV show) of the formation of the Universe suggests that there should be equal parts matter and its counterpart antimatter, but so far we've mostly seen only the former. While there are positrons and anti-protons flying about that can be accounted for by processes involving nuclear interactions, if AMS-2 can detect a more complex anti-particle, like an anti-helium nucleus (an atom composed of two anti-protons, two anti-neutrons, and two positrons), then we'll have an example of antimatter that formed by more complex processes than a random nuclear collision or decay. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMS-2's \"lens\" is not made of glass, but of magnetic fields. Conventional telescopes bend and focus light with glass lenses or curved mirrors, but AMS-2 will observe electrically charged cosmic rays, which can be collected and sorted with magnetic force. AMS-2 will count cosmic rays, determine what types of particles they are, and how much energy they possess (how fast they are moving). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From Earth's surface observing cosmic rays is nearly impossible, at best. The particles interact with the nuclei of atoms in our atmosphere, forming a different subatomic particle and a burst of \"secondary\" cosmic radiation—which can be detected by ground-based instruments, but only as \"second hand\" news. In fact, it is cosmic ray interactions with ordinary carbon (carbon 12) in Earth's atmosphere that transform them into the radioisotope carbon 14, which scientists take advantage of to determine how long a sample of formerly living material has been dead (as in carbon dating). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, stay tuned for news on what scientists discover as they peer into the very dark darkness of a currently unknown realm of existence. Should be exciting….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8148 -122.178\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/14592/dark-endeavours","authors":["6180"],"categories":["quest_3"],"tags":["quest_3453","quest_3456","quest_183","quest_13192","quest_316","quest_3534","quest_767","quest_768","quest_3561","quest_3620","quest_1918","quest_3680","quest_3775"],"featImg":"quest_14596","label":"quest"},"quest_3984":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_3984","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"3984","score":null,"sort":[1256244746000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"science-event-pick-boss-of-the-night-sky","title":"Science Event Pick: BOSS of the Night Sky","publishDate":1256244746,"format":"standard","headTitle":"Science Event Pick: BOSS of the Night Sky | KQED","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/10/sloantelesco1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>The Sloan Telescope used to conduct BOSS\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\nA long time ago in a galaxy far far away…Well, to be precise, 14 billion years ago and at the beginning of the universe was the Big Bang. Ever since that moment, our universe has been expanding, but over the last 7 billion years that expansion has been accelerating. Why? Scientists don’t really know, so they came up with an ominous term as a placeholder: \u003ca href=\"http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics/what-is-dark-energy\">Dark Energy\u003c/a> (Another possible explanation is that that our theory of gravity is wrong, but we’ll skip that for now). Recent calculations project dark energy makes up nearly 70% of the mass-energy of the universe. 70% of the universe is a mystery? That’s the kind of puzzle that inspires scientists to craft unique experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of those is \u003ca href=\"http://cosmology.lbl.gov/BOSS/\">BOSS\u003c/a>, the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey, is a new project to create a 3-D map of over 2 million galaxies and quasars representing the best data ever obtained on the large-scale structure of the universe. \u003ca href=\"http://astro.berkeley.edu/%7Emwhite/bao/\">Baryon oscillations\u003c/a> began as pressure waves through the hot plasma of the early universe. Those waves left an imprint on the matter that makes up the universe, including the dark matter. The survey will essentially act as a ruler, in order to measure how the universe has been expanding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next Monday, you’ll be able to meet \u003ca href=\"http://bccp.lbl.gov/personnel/david_schlegel/\">David Schlegel\u003c/a>, the principal investigator of BOSS. He’ll be part of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-PID/fobl/\">panel of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory scientists\u003c/a> discussing their search for dark energy. As a primer, check out \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">QUEST’s story on Dark Energy\u003c/a> from last year. The piece features astrophysicist \u003ca href=\"http://supernova.lbl.gov/public/sauldir/saulhome.html\">Saul Perlmutter\u003c/a>, who will also be speaking at the event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See QUEST’s Video on \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">Dark Energy\u003c/a> below:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://www.bayareascience.org/calendar/events/index.php?com=detail&eID=1023&year=2009&month=10\">Dark Secrets: What Science Tells Us About the Hidden Universe\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Where:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://maps.google.com/maps?q=2025+Addison+Street%2C+Berkeley%2C+CA+94704&hl=en&f=d\">Berkeley Repertory Theater\u003c/a>, 2025 Addison Street, Berkeley\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> When:\u003c/em> Monday, October 26th 7-830 PM\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Cost:\u003c/em> FREE\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Details:\u003c/em> No mystery is bigger than dark energy — the elusive force that makes up three-quarters of the Universe and is causing it to expand at an accelerating rate. KTVU Channel 2 health and science editor John Fowler will moderate a panel of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists who use phenomena such as exploding stars and gravitational lenses to explore the dark cosmos.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.871295 -122.269316\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"KTVU Channel 2 health and science editor John Fowler will moderate a panel of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists who use phenomena such as exploding stars and gravitational lenses to explore the dark cosmos.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1684975550,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":13,"wordCount":395},"headData":{"title":"Science Event Pick: BOSS of the Night Sky | KQED","description":"KTVU Channel 2 health and science editor John Fowler will moderate a panel of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists who use phenomena such as exploding stars and gravitational lenses to explore the dark cosmos.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"templateType":"standard","featuredImageType":"standard","excludeFromSiteSearch":"Include","articleAge":"0","path":"/quest/3984/science-event-pick-boss-of-the-night-sky","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2009/10/sloantelesco1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>The Sloan Telescope used to conduct BOSS\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\nA long time ago in a galaxy far far away…Well, to be precise, 14 billion years ago and at the beginning of the universe was the Big Bang. Ever since that moment, our universe has been expanding, but over the last 7 billion years that expansion has been accelerating. Why? Scientists don’t really know, so they came up with an ominous term as a placeholder: \u003ca href=\"http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics/what-is-dark-energy\">Dark Energy\u003c/a> (Another possible explanation is that that our theory of gravity is wrong, but we’ll skip that for now). Recent calculations project dark energy makes up nearly 70% of the mass-energy of the universe. 70% of the universe is a mystery? That’s the kind of puzzle that inspires scientists to craft unique experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of those is \u003ca href=\"http://cosmology.lbl.gov/BOSS/\">BOSS\u003c/a>, the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey, is a new project to create a 3-D map of over 2 million galaxies and quasars representing the best data ever obtained on the large-scale structure of the universe. \u003ca href=\"http://astro.berkeley.edu/%7Emwhite/bao/\">Baryon oscillations\u003c/a> began as pressure waves through the hot plasma of the early universe. Those waves left an imprint on the matter that makes up the universe, including the dark matter. The survey will essentially act as a ruler, in order to measure how the universe has been expanding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next Monday, you’ll be able to meet \u003ca href=\"http://bccp.lbl.gov/personnel/david_schlegel/\">David Schlegel\u003c/a>, the principal investigator of BOSS. He’ll be part of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-PID/fobl/\">panel of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory scientists\u003c/a> discussing their search for dark energy. As a primer, check out \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">QUEST’s story on Dark Energy\u003c/a> from last year. The piece features astrophysicist \u003ca href=\"http://supernova.lbl.gov/public/sauldir/saulhome.html\">Saul Perlmutter\u003c/a>, who will also be speaking at the event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See QUEST’s Video on \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">Dark Energy\u003c/a> below:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://www.bayareascience.org/calendar/events/index.php?com=detail&eID=1023&year=2009&month=10\">Dark Secrets: What Science Tells Us About the Hidden Universe\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Where:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://maps.google.com/maps?q=2025+Addison+Street%2C+Berkeley%2C+CA+94704&hl=en&f=d\">Berkeley Repertory Theater\u003c/a>, 2025 Addison Street, Berkeley\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> When:\u003c/em> Monday, October 26th 7-830 PM\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Cost:\u003c/em> FREE\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Details:\u003c/em> No mystery is bigger than dark energy — the elusive force that makes up three-quarters of the Universe and is causing it to expand at an accelerating rate. KTVU Channel 2 health and science editor John Fowler will moderate a panel of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists who use phenomena such as exploding stars and gravitational lenses to explore the dark cosmos.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.871295 -122.269316\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/3984/science-event-pick-boss-of-the-night-sky","authors":["10201"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_767","quest_768","quest_13199","quest_1624","quest_13205","quest_2739"],"label":"quest"},"quest_712":{"type":"posts","id":"quest_712","meta":{"index":"posts_1591205157","site":"quest","id":"712","score":null,"sort":[1216859830000]},"guestAuthors":[],"slug":"producers-notes-dark-energy","title":"Nobel Winner Used Stars to Map History of the Universe","publishDate":1216859830,"format":"video","headTitle":"QUEST | KQED Science","labelTerm":{"site":"quest"},"content":"\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/210a_dark_energy30011.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sitting in a small, non-descript room in the basement of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab in Berkeley, physics graduate student Hannah Swift and physicist Saul Perlmutter are searching for supernovae, stars destroyed in huge explosions millions or billions of years ago. (They're looking for ones that exploded billions of years ago). Through a computer hooked up to \u003ca href=\"https://www.keckobservatory.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Hawaii's Keck 2 telescope\u003c/a> -– one of the largest in the world –- they are able to follow along as UC Berkeley post-doc Rahman Amanullah, a team member who had traveled to Hawaii a few days earlier, supervises the night's observation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their goal is to use a device called a spectrograph to get a spectra of five to eight supernovae. This spectrum is a \"photograph\" of the light emitted by the supernova and it allows scientists to determine whether they are the \u003ca href=\"http://supernova.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">type Ia supernovae\u003c/a> that are useful for their research. By figuring out how far away these type Ia supernovae are (or \"were,\" since by the time their light reaches us, they have long since vanished) and observing how much the light traveling towards the Earth has shifted towards red wavelengths, they can determine how long ago the star exploded. With this information, they're building a history of the expansion of the universe. The weather in Hawaii is good, and the researchers are forecasting a good \"seeing.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's encouraging and moving to see how young these researchers are. Swift is a twenty-something from Kansas. She's so young that she has always understood the universe to be accelerating, that is, expanding faster and faster. She has never thought that the universe is decelerating, which is what the scientific community believed before 1998, when Perlmutter's team at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and another team simultaneously \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=discovering-a-dark-universe\" target=\"_blank\">reported their findings that the universe is accelerating\u003c/a>. When this announcement was made, Swift was in the 8th grade. Perlmutter himself is only in his 40s. When he started his post-doc, he and his colleagues had to beg for time on the big telescopes. That wasn't that long ago: our understanding of the universe has shifted very fast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few days later, Swift invites us back to the lab to show us some of the data the researchers gathered during the observation. They obtained spectra for five supernovae – a good night's work. Swift is now in the process of figuring out which of the supernovae are type Ia's. To do this, she's comparing their spectrograms to the spectra of a standard type Ia. Light is a very useful tool because different elements emit light of different wavelengths. Swift shows me the spectrogram for a standard type Ia. It has telltale peaks and valleys that reveal what exploding type Ia supernovae eject when they explode – silicon and cobalt, among other elements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I wonder what big changes in the way we understand our universe will be commonplace when my one-year-old niece is in her 20s. What new discoveries will we use as points of reference in the coming decades? (Assuming we're hip enough to use astronomical discoveries as points of reference!) Will scientists know by then the nature of dark energy, the now-mysterious \"something\" that is making the universe accelerate, pushing its fabric apart? Will I be able to preface a comment to my niece with, \"When you were little, before we knew what dark energy is…\"? And will she be able to reply, \"Aunt Gabi, you're so ooold!\" I suspect she'll do the latter no matter what.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/images/tv_icon_light.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>Watch the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\"Dark Energy\" TV Story \u003c/a> online, as well as find additional links and resources. Also don't miss our \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/sets/72157606318771842/\">online photo set\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.872222 -122.268403\u003c/p>\n\n","blocks":[],"excerpt":"Sitting in a small, non-descript room in the basement of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab in Berkeley, astronomy graduate student Hannah Swift and physicist Saul Perlmutter are searching for supernovae, stars destroyed in huge explosions millions or billions of years ago.","status":"publish","parent":0,"modified":1317754117,"stats":{"hasAudio":false,"hasVideo":false,"hasChartOrMap":false,"iframeSrcs":[],"hasGoogleForm":false,"hasGallery":false,"hasHearkenModule":false,"hasPolis":false,"paragraphCount":10,"wordCount":630},"headData":{"title":"Nobel Winner Used Stars to Map History of the Universe | KQED","description":"Sitting in a small, non-descript room in the basement of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab in Berkeley, astronomy graduate student Hannah Swift and physicist Saul Perlmutter are searching for supernovae, stars destroyed in huge explosions millions or billions of years ago.","ogTitle":"","ogDescription":"","ogImgId":"","twTitle":"","twDescription":"","twImgId":""},"disqusIdentifier":"712 http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/?p=712","disqusUrl":"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/07/23/producers-notes-dark-energy/","disqusTitle":"Nobel Winner Used Stars to Map History of the Universe","path":"/quest/712/producers-notes-dark-energy","audioTrackLength":null,"parsedContent":[{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/210a_dark_energy30011.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sitting in a small, non-descript room in the basement of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab in Berkeley, physics graduate student Hannah Swift and physicist Saul Perlmutter are searching for supernovae, stars destroyed in huge explosions millions or billions of years ago. (They're looking for ones that exploded billions of years ago). Through a computer hooked up to \u003ca href=\"https://www.keckobservatory.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Hawaii's Keck 2 telescope\u003c/a> -– one of the largest in the world –- they are able to follow along as UC Berkeley post-doc Rahman Amanullah, a team member who had traveled to Hawaii a few days earlier, supervises the night's observation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their goal is to use a device called a spectrograph to get a spectra of five to eight supernovae. This spectrum is a \"photograph\" of the light emitted by the supernova and it allows scientists to determine whether they are the \u003ca href=\"http://supernova.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">type Ia supernovae\u003c/a> that are useful for their research. By figuring out how far away these type Ia supernovae are (or \"were,\" since by the time their light reaches us, they have long since vanished) and observing how much the light traveling towards the Earth has shifted towards red wavelengths, they can determine how long ago the star exploded. With this information, they're building a history of the expansion of the universe. The weather in Hawaii is good, and the researchers are forecasting a good \"seeing.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's encouraging and moving to see how young these researchers are. Swift is a twenty-something from Kansas. She's so young that she has always understood the universe to be accelerating, that is, expanding faster and faster. She has never thought that the universe is decelerating, which is what the scientific community believed before 1998, when Perlmutter's team at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and another team simultaneously \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=discovering-a-dark-universe\" target=\"_blank\">reported their findings that the universe is accelerating\u003c/a>. When this announcement was made, Swift was in the 8th grade. Perlmutter himself is only in his 40s. When he started his post-doc, he and his colleagues had to beg for time on the big telescopes. That wasn't that long ago: our understanding of the universe has shifted very fast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few days later, Swift invites us back to the lab to show us some of the data the researchers gathered during the observation. They obtained spectra for five supernovae – a good night's work. Swift is now in the process of figuring out which of the supernovae are type Ia's. To do this, she's comparing their spectrograms to the spectra of a standard type Ia. Light is a very useful tool because different elements emit light of different wavelengths. Swift shows me the spectrogram for a standard type Ia. It has telltale peaks and valleys that reveal what exploding type Ia supernovae eject when they explode – silicon and cobalt, among other elements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}},{"type":"component","content":"","name":"ad","attributes":{"named":{"label":"fullwidth"},"numeric":["fullwidth"]}},{"type":"contentString","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I wonder what big changes in the way we understand our universe will be commonplace when my one-year-old niece is in her 20s. What new discoveries will we use as points of reference in the coming decades? (Assuming we're hip enough to use astronomical discoveries as points of reference!) Will scientists know by then the nature of dark energy, the now-mysterious \"something\" that is making the universe accelerate, pushing its fabric apart? Will I be able to preface a comment to my niece with, \"When you were little, before we knew what dark energy is…\"? And will she be able to reply, \"Aunt Gabi, you're so ooold!\" I suspect she'll do the latter no matter what.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/images/tv_icon_light.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>Watch the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\"Dark Energy\" TV Story \u003c/a> online, as well as find additional links and resources. Also don't miss our \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/sets/72157606318771842/\">online photo set\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.872222 -122.268403\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>","attributes":{"named":{},"numeric":[]}}],"link":"/quest/712/producers-notes-dark-energy","authors":["6186"],"categories":["quest_3","quest_16"],"tags":["quest_13192","quest_767","quest_768","quest_1586","quest_13205","quest_2739","quest_2780","quest_2838","quest_2893"],"label":"quest"}},"programsReducer":{"possible":{"id":"possible","title":"Possible","info":"Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.","airtime":"SUN 2pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.possible.fm/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"Possible"},"link":"/radio/program/possible","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/possible/id1677184070","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"}},"1a":{"id":"1a","title":"1A","info":"1A is home to the national conversation. 1A brings on great guests and frames the best debate in ways that make you think, share and engage.","airtime":"MON-THU 11pm-12am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/1a.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://the1a.org/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/1a","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=1188724250&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/1A-p947376/","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510316/podcast.xml"}},"all-things-considered":{"id":"all-things-considered","title":"All Things Considered","info":"Every weekday, \u003cem>All Things Considered\u003c/em> hosts Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Kelly McEvers present the program's trademark mix of news, interviews, commentaries, reviews, and offbeat features. Michel Martin hosts on the weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 1pm-2pm, 4:30pm-6:30pm\u003cbr />SAT-SUN 5pm-6pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/All-Things-Considered-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.npr.org/programs/all-things-considered/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/all-things-considered"},"american-suburb-podcast":{"id":"american-suburb-podcast","title":"American Suburb: The Podcast","tagline":"The flip side of gentrification, told through one town","info":"Gentrification is changing cities across America, forcing people from neighborhoods they have long called home. Call them the displaced. Now those priced out of the Bay Area are looking for a better life in an unlikely place. American Suburb follows this migration to one California town along the Delta, 45 miles from San Francisco. But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/American-Suburb-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"13"},"link":"/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/","subscribe":{"npr":"https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/RBrW","apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/American-Suburb-p1086805/","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"}},"baycurious":{"id":"baycurious","title":"Bay Curious","tagline":"Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time","info":"KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","imageAlt":"\"KQED Bay Curious","officialWebsiteLink":"/news/series/baycurious","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kqed","order":"4"},"link":"/podcasts/baycurious","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/bay-curious/id1172473406","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/500557090/bay-curious","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/news/category/bay-curious-podcast/feed/podcast","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvbmV3cy9jYXRlZ29yeS9iYXktY3VyaW91cy1wb2RjYXN0L2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdA","stitcher":"https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/bay-curious","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/6O76IdmhixfijmhTZLIJ8k"}},"bbc-world-service":{"id":"bbc-world-service","title":"BBC World Service","info":"The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.","airtime":"MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service","meta":{"site":"news","source":"BBC World Service"},"link":"/radio/program/bbc-world-service","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/","rss":"https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"}},"code-switch-life-kit":{"id":"code-switch-life-kit","title":"Code Switch / Life Kit","info":"\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />","airtime":"SUN 9pm-10pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/1112190608?mt=2&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/3bExJ9JQpkwNhoHvaIIuyV","rss":"https://feeds.npr.org/510312/podcast.xml"}},"commonwealth-club":{"id":"commonwealth-club","title":"Commonwealth Club of California Podcast","info":"The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. 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On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. 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For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us","airtime":"SUN 2pm-3pm, MON 12am-1am","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/onTheMedia.png","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.wnycstudios.org/shows/otm","meta":{"site":"news","source":"wnyc"},"link":"/radio/program/on-the-media","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/on-the-media/id73330715?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/On-the-Media-p69/","rss":"http://feeds.wnyc.org/onthemedia"}},"our-body-politic":{"id":"our-body-politic","title":"Our Body Politic","info":"Presented by KQED, KCRW and KPCC, and created and hosted by award-winning journalist Farai Chideya, Our Body Politic is unapologetically centered on reporting on not just how women of color experience the major political events of today, but how they’re impacting those very issues.","airtime":"SAT 6pm-7pm, SUN 1am-2am","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Our-Body-Politic-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://our-body-politic.simplecast.com/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"kcrw"},"link":"/radio/program/our-body-politic","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/our-body-politic/id1533069868","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5zaW1wbGVjYXN0LmNvbS9feGFQaHMxcw","spotify":"https://open.spotify.com/show/4ApAiLT1kV153TttWAmqmc","rss":"https://feeds.simplecast.com/_xaPhs1s","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/podcasts/News--Politics-Podcasts/Our-Body-Politic-p1369211/"}},"pbs-newshour":{"id":"pbs-newshour","title":"PBS NewsHour","info":"Analysis, background reports and updates from the PBS NewsHour putting today's news in context.","airtime":"MON-FRI 3pm-4pm","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/PBS-News-Hour-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"pbs"},"link":"/radio/program/pbs-newshour","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/pbs-newshour-full-show/id394432287?mt=2","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/PBS-NewsHour---Full-Show-p425698/","rss":"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/feeds/rss/podcasts/show"}},"perspectives":{"id":"perspectives","title":"Perspectives","tagline":"KQED's series of of daily listener commentaries since 1991","info":"KQED's series of of daily listener commentaries since 1991.","imageSrc":"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Perspectives-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg","officialWebsiteLink":"/perspectives/","meta":{"site":"radio","source":"kqed","order":"15"},"link":"/perspectives","subscribe":{"apple":"https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/id73801135","npr":"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/432309616/perspectives","rss":"https://ww2.kqed.org/perspectives/category/perspectives/feed/","google":"https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvcGVyc3BlY3RpdmVzL2NhdGVnb3J5L3BlcnNwZWN0aXZlcy9mZWVkLw"}},"planet-money":{"id":"planet-money","title":"Planet Money","info":"The economy explained. 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The result is stories that inform and inspire, arming our listeners with information to right injustices, hold the powerful accountable and improve lives.Reveal is hosted by Al Letson and showcases the award-winning work of CIR and newsrooms large and small across the nation. In a radio and podcast market crowded with choices, Reveal focuses on important and often surprising stories that illuminate the world for our listeners.","airtime":"SAT 4pm-5pm","imageSrc":"https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/reveal300px.png","officialWebsiteLink":"https://www.revealnews.org/episodes/","meta":{"site":"news","source":"npr"},"link":"/radio/program/reveal","subscribe":{"apple":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/reveal/id886009669","tuneIn":"https://tunein.com/radio/Reveal-p679597/","rss":"http://feeds.revealradio.org/revealpodcast"}},"says-you":{"id":"says-you","title":"Says You!","info":"Public radio's game show of bluff and bluster, words and whimsy. 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